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Voices in Translation

TRANSLATING EUROPE
Series Editors:Gunilla Andeman,University of Surrey, UK

Margaret Rogers,University of Surrey, UK

Other Books in the Series

In and Out of English: For Better for Worse

Gunilla Anderman and Margaret Rogers (eds)

Incorporating Corpora: The Linguist and the Translator

Gunilla Anderman and Margaret Rogers (eds)

Other Books of Interest

A Companion to Translation Studies

Piotr Kuhiwczak and Karin Littau (eds)

Contemporary Translation Theories (2nd edition)

Edwin Gentzler

Constructing Cultures: Essays on Literary Translation

Susan Bassnett and André Lefevere

Cultural Encounters in Translation from Arabic

Said Faiq (ed.)

Frae Ither Tongues: Essays on Modern Translations into Scots

Bill Findlay (ed.)

Identity, Insecurity and Image: France and Language

Dennis Ager

Literary Translation: A Practical Guide

Clifford E. Landers

Politeness in Europe

Leo Hickey and Miranda Stewart (eds)

The Pragmatics of Translation

Leo Hickey (ed.)

Theatrical Translation and Film Adaptation: A Practitioner’s View

Phyllis Zatlin

Time Sharing on Stage: Drama Translation in Theatre and Society

Sirkku Aaltonen

Translating Milan Kundera

Michelle Woods

Translation, Linguistics, Culture: A French-English Handbook

Nigel Armstrong

Translation, Power, Subversion

Román Alvarez and M. Carmen-Africa Vidal (eds)

Translation and Nation: A Cultural Politics of Englishness

Roger Ellis and Liz Oakley-Brown (eds)

Translation and Religion: Holy Untranslatable?

Lynne Long (ed.)

Words, Words, Words. The Translator and the Language Learner

Gunilla Anderman and Margaret Rogers

Written in the Language of the Scottish Nation: A History of Literary Translation into

Scots

John Corbett

For more details of these or any other of our publications, please contact:
Multilingual Matters, Frankfurt Lodge, Clevedon Hall,

Victoria Road, Clevedon, BS21 7HH, England

http://www.multilingual-matters.com

TRANSLATING EUROPE
Series Editors: Gunilla Anderman and Margaret Rogers
University of Surrey

Voices in Translation

Bridging Cultural Divides

Edited by

Gunilla Anderman

MULTILINGUAL MATTERS LTD
Clevedon • Buffalo • Toronto

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Voices in Translation: Bridging Cultural Divides / Edited by Gunilla Anderman.

Translating Europe.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

1. Translating and interpreting. 2. European literature–History and criticism.
I. Anderman, Gunilla M.

PN241.V583 2007

418’.02–dc22

2007000081

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue entry for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN-13: 978-1-85359-983-5 (hbk)

ISBN-13: 978-1-85359-982-8 (pbk)

Multilingual Matters Ltd

UK: Frankfurt Lodge, Clevedon Hall, Victoria Road, Clevedon BS21 7HH.

USA: UTP, 2250 Military Road, Tonawanda, NY 14150, USA.

Canada: UTP, 5201 Dufferin Street, North York, Ontario M3H 5T8, Canada.

means without permission in writing from the publisher.

The policy of Multilingual Matters/Channel View Publications is to use papers that

are natural, renewable and recyclable products, made from wood grown in

sustainable forests. In the manufacturing process of our books, and to further support

our policy, preference is given to printers that have FSC and PEFC Chain of Custody

certification. The FSC and/or PEFC logos will appear on those books where full

certification has been granted to the printer concerned.

Typeset by Wordworks Ltd.

Printed and bound in Great Britain by the Cromwell Press Ltd.

Bill Findlay

11th June 1947 – 15th May 2005

In Memoriam

Contents

Acknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ix

Contributors: A Short Profile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .x

Introduction
Gunilla Anderman. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

1Voices in Translation

Gunilla Anderman. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

2From Rouyn to Lerwick: The Vernacular Journey of

Jeanne-Mance Delisle’s ‘The Reel of the Hanged Man’
Martin Bowman. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

3Speaking the World: Drama in Scots Translation

John Corbett. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

4Staging Italian Theatre: A Resistant Approach

Stefania Taviano. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46

5The Style of Translation: Dialogue with the Author

Joseph Farrell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56

6Chekhov in the Theatre: The Role of the Translator in

New Versions
Helen Rappaport. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66

7The Cultural Engagements of Stage Translation: Federico García

Lorca in Performance
David Johnston. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78

8To Be or Not To Be (Untranslatable): Strindberg in Swedish

and English
Gunilla Anderman. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94

vii

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9Mind the Gap: Translating the ‘Untranslatable’

Margaret Jull Costa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111

10Alice in Denmark

Viggo Hjørnager Pedersen and Kirsten Nauja Andersen. . . . . . . . .123

11Little Snowdrop and The Magic Mirror: Two Approaches to

Creating a ‘Suitable’ Translation in 19th-Century England
Niamh Chapelle and Jenny Williams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134

12From Dissidents to Bestsellers: Polish Literature in English

Translation After the End of the Cold War
Piotr Kuhiwczak. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148

viii

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Acknowledgements

OurthanksmustfirstofallgotoBillFindlay’swife,JessicaBurns,andtheir
daughters,HannahandMartha,foragreeingtoletusdedicateVoicesin
Translation:BridgingCulturalDividestohismemory.Whenplanningthis
volumewewereincontactwithBillaboutmakingacontribution,onlyto
learnafterproductionofthevolumehadbegunthatsadlyhewouldbe
unabletocontribute.Dedicatingthisvolumetohismemoryseemedthe
obviouswayofacknowledgingBillFindlay’sworkinthefieldofTransla-
tionStudiesandthecontributionhewasunabletomaketothisbook.Once
thisdecisionwastaken,speedofcompletionhadbynecessitytobesacri-
ficedtoourconcerntoincludeasmanyaspossibleofthosewhowishedto
paytribute.Adebtofgratitudeisowedbothtothosecontributorswho
endeavouredtomeetthetightdeadlineandtothosewhopatientlywaited
toseethefinishedvolume,includingthepublisher,MultilingualMatters,
towhomwewouldalsoliketoexpressourthanks.Last,butcertainlynot
least,wewouldliketothankGillianJameswhosecommitmenttothe
projectandcreativeinputhelpedVoicesinTranslation:BridgingCultural
Dividessee the light of day.

Gunilla Anderman

Guildford, October 2006

Note added in proof

Thecurrentvolume–VoicesinTranslation–wasgenerouslydedicatedtothe
memoryofBillFindlay,apioneerinthefieldofdialecttranslation,byour
friendandcolleagueGunillaAnderman.Tragically,Gunillaherselfdidnot
livetoseethisricheditedcollectionofpapersreachitsfinalstages.Asan
accomplishedtranslatorofdrama,aswellasadistinguishedscholarin
TranslationStudies,Gunillawouldhavedelightedinthefinalpublication
ofavolumethathighlightsandcelebratestheroleofthetranslatorasa
skilfulandcreativeculturalmediator.Herowncontributiontothisvolume
illustratesthisbetterthananyfurthercommentary.Letthevolumebea
fitting tribute to Gunilla’s outstanding work in this field.

Margaret Rogers

Guildford, July 2007

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Contributors: A Short Profile

GunillaAnderman

wasProfessorofTranslationStudiesattheUniversity

ofSurrey,whereshetaughttranslationtheory,translationofdramaand
translationofchildren’sliterature–fieldsinwhichshehadpublishedand
lecturedwidelyintheUKaswellasinternationally.Shewasalsoa
professionaltranslator,withtranslationsofScandinavianplaysstagedin
theUK,USAandSouthAfrica.HermostrecentbookwasEuropeonStage:
Translation and Theatre(2005).

KirstenNaujaAndersen

,MA,isDeputyHeadoftheTranslationCentre,

CopenhagenUniversity.Shealsoworksasasubtitler,translatorandlexi-
cographer.In1994shewasawardedCopenhagenUniversity’sgoldmedal
for her thesis on the Danish translations of Lewis Carroll’sAlice.

MartinBowman

wasbornandraisedinMontrealofScottishparentage

andeducatedatMcGillUniversityandUniversitédeMontréalwherehe
gainedhisPhD.WithBillFindlayheco-translatedintoScotselevenplays
byfourQuebecplaywrights,andwithWajdiMouawadhehasco-trans-
latedtwoplays,TrainspottingandDiscoPigs,intoFrench.Nowretiredfrom
teaching,heispresentlyengagedintranslatingtheworkofJeanne-Mance
Delisle.

NiamhChapelle

gainedherPhDfromDublinCityUniversity,entitledThe

Translators’Tale:ATranslator-CentredHistoryofSevenEnglishTranslations
(1823–1944)oftheGrimms’FairyTale‘Sneewittchen’.Beforemovingbackto
Irelandtoworkinthelocalisationindustry,shewasemployedasanin-
housetranslatorinGermany.Morerecently,shehasbeenworkingasa
freelancetranslator.Herfascinationwithfairytalesandthehistoryof
translation continues.

JohnCorbett

isProfessorofAppliedLanguageStudiesinGlasgowUniver-

sity’sDepartmentofEnglishLanguage.Amonghispublicationsontheuse
ofScotsinliteratureareLanguageandScottishLiterature(1997)andWrittenin
theLanguageoftheScottishNation:AHistoryofLiteraryTranslationintoScots
(1999). He is also the editor ofLanguage and Intercultural Communication.

JosephFarrell

isProfessorofItalianStudiesintheUniversityofStrath-

clyde,inGlasgow.HismainresearchinterestsareinthefieldsofSicilian
cultureandTheatreHistory.HeistheauthorofLeonardoSciascia(1995),and

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DarioFoandFrancaRame:HarlequinsoftheRevolution.(2001).TheHistoryof
ItalianTheatre,whichheco-editedwithPaoloPuppaofCa’FoscariUniver-
sity,issoontobepublished.Inaddition,hehaseditedvolumesonCarlo
Goldoni,DarioFo,PrimoLeviandontheMafia.Histranslationsinclude
novelsbySciascia,ConsoloandDelGiudice,aswellasplaysbyFo,Baricco,
De Filippo and Goldoni.

ViggoHjørnagerPedersen

,D.Phil,isAssociateProfessorofEnglishat

CopenhagenUniversity.HisresearchisinthefieldofTranslationStudies
andLiterature.Hisrecentbook,UglyDucklings?StudiesintheEnglishTrans-
lationsofHansChristianAndersen’sTalesandStories(2004)isamonographon
EnglishtranslationsofHansChristianAndersen’stales.Heiseditorofthe
3rdand4theditionsoftheVinterberg&BodelsenDanish-EnglishDictionary
(1990and1998).HisliterarytranslationsincludenovelsbyE.M.Forsterand
William Golding.

DavidJohnston

isProfessorofSpanishandHeadoftheSchoolof

Languages,LiteraturesandPerformingArtsatQueen’sUniversityBelfast.
HehaspublishedonSpanishculture,theatre,andtranslation,including
StagesofTranslation(1996).HeiscurrentlycompletingTranslationand
Performance:ThePracticeofTheatre,tobepublishedin2007.Anaward-
winningtranslatorforthestage,hisversionsofplaysbyValle-Inclánand
LorcahavebeenproducedbyBBCRadio3andRadio4,andin2003–2004
hisTheDoginTheMangerbyLopedeVegawasperformedbytheRoyal
ShakespeareCompany.Morerecentlyhehasalsotranslatedcontemporary
MexicanandArgentineplaysfortheRoyalCourtinLondonandforthe
OhioInternationalTheatreFestivalrespectively.Anumberofhisownplays
havebeenproducedonstageincluding,in1988,hisversionofDonQuijote.

MargaretJullCosta

hastranslatedanumberofSpanish,Portugueseand

LatinAmericanwritersincludingEçadeQueiroz,FernandoPessoa,Javier
MaríasandJoséRégio.ShewasjointwinnerofthePortugueseTranslation
Prizein1992fortheBookofDisquietbyFernandoPessoa.Morerecentlyshe
hasbeennotedforherworkintranslatingthenovelsofJoséSaramago,her
translationofAlltheNameswinningthe2000WeidenfeldTranslationPrize.
In2006,shewonthePremioValleInclán2006forhertranslationofJavier
Marías’sYour Face Tomorrow: Fever and Spear(2005).

PiotrKuhiwczak

,PhD,lecturesintheDepartmentforTranslationand

ComparativeCulturesatWarwickUniversityandisDeputyChairofthe
advisoryboardoftheBritishCentreforLiteraryTranslation,andtheChair
oftheeditorialboardofTheLinguist.WithDrKarinLittauoftheUniversity
ofEssex,hehasrecentlycompletedaneditedvolumeofessays,A
CompaniontoTranslationStudies,toappearinMay2007.Hismajorresearch
projectisconcernedwiththestudyoftheimpactoftranslationontherecep-

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tionofHolocaustmemoirsandtestimoniesandtheimpactofcensorship
on writing and translation, particularly in Central and Eastern Europe.

HelenRappaport

graduatedinRussianSpecialStudiesfromLeeds

University,afterwhichshetookupanactingcareer,aswellasworkingasa
RussiantranslatorfortheNationalTheatre,theRoyalShakespeare
Company,theAlmeidaandDonmarWarehousetheatres.Since1976she
hasworkedwithmajorBritishplaywrightssuchasDavidLan,Nick
Wright,KevinElyot,FrankMcGuinness,TrevorGriffithsandDavidHare
onnewversionsofplaysbyChekhov,OstrovskyandGorky.Shehastrans-
latedallsevenofChekhov’sextantplays,mostnotablyfordirectorKatie
Mitchell.Inadditiontoherworkasatranslator,sheisincreasinglyconcen-
tratingonherwritingcareerasaspecialistin19th-centurywomen’s
history,asinher2007publicationNoPlaceforLadies:TheUntoldStoryof
Women in the Crimean War.

StefaniaTaviano

whoholdsaPhDinTranslationStudiesfromWarwick

University,nowlecturesinEnglishattheUniversityofMessina,Italy.Sheis
theauthorofStagingDarioFoandFrancaRame:Anglo-AmericanApproaches
toPoliticalTheatre(2005)andofanumberofarticlesonItalianmodern
dramatistsaswellasItalianAmericantheatreandperformanceart.Shehas
alsotranslatedItaliancontemporaryplaywrights,suchasSpiroScimone,
andcontributedtothetranslationofDarioFo’sJohanPadanandthe
Discovery of the Americas.

JennyWilliams,

AssociateProfessorandHeadoftheSchoolofApplied

LanguageandInterculturalStudiesatDublinCityUniversity,haspub-
lishedinthefieldsofGermanandTranslationStudies.Hermostrecent
book(withAndrewChesterman)isTheMap:AGuidetoDoingResearchin
TranslationStudies(2002).Hertranslationworksincludeapoetryanthology
fromGermanintoEnglish:SabineLangeTheFishermenSleep,withanintro-
duction by Mary O’Donnell (2005).

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Introduction

GUNILLA ANDERMAN

ThisvolumefocusesontwoproblemsthatfacethetranslatorofEuropean
fiction:voicesspeakingacrossculturalbordersandthedifficultyoftrans-
ferringthesocial,culturalandpoliticalmilieuinwhichthesespeakersare
rooted.

Thevolumeopenswith‘VoicesinTranslation’inwhichGunilla

Andermandiscussestheimportanceofprovidingspeakersofothernations
andcultureswithanauthenticvoiceintranslation.Followinganexposéof
thereasonswhyawarenessoftheimportanceofspeakerscommunicating
acrossculturaldividesinvoicesoftheirownhasbeenslowincoming,tribute
ispaidtotheworkofBillFindlayinScotsdialecttranslation.Particular
attentionisgiventohisimaginativere-creationofGerhartHauptmann’s
TheWeavers,amilestoneinthedevelopmentofmodernEuropeandrama,
andBairns’Brothers,hisdialectversionofEnfantillagesbyRaymond
Cousse,acontemporaryplaywritteninstandardFrench.Mentionisalso
madeofFindlay’sworkwithco-translatorMartinBowmanonthetransla-
tionoftheplaysbyMichelTremblay,whichhavemadetheQuebecplay-
wrightthemostfrequentlyperformedforeign-languageplaywrightin
Scotland for the past 16 years.

InChapter2,‘FromRouyntoLerwick:TheVernacularJourneyof

Jeanne-ManceDelisle’sTheReeloftheHangedMan’,MartinBowmantellsof
anotherQuebecplaywrightwhoseworkheandFindlaybroughttothe
stage.Theplay’sfirstproductionprovedtobeadifficultride,duetoalarge
extenttothesensitivityofthesubject–Delisledealswiththetopicofincest.
InthischaptertheauthorintroducesustotheQuebecplaywrightaswellas
toherplay,pointingtotheimportanceofvernaculartheatrebeyondits
original culture.

JohnCorbett’scontribution,‘SpeakingtheWorld:DramainScotsTrans-

lation’paystributetoBillFindlay,drawingontheexperienceofco-editing
withhimtheanthologyServingTwaMaisters:FivePlaysinScotsTranslation.
Whilethenon-standardurbanargotofScotshasbeenlinkedtothecondi-
tionsofclassoppression(asinthewritingofIrvineWelshandJames
Kelman),thischaptersetsouttoredressthebalancebyexploringtheusesof
Scots in English plays translated over the second half of the 20th century.

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Chapter4,StefaniaTaviano’scontribution,alsohasastrongScottish

link.TheItalianstagingsdiscussedin‘StagingItalianTheatre:AResistant
Approach’includeajointproductionofTheOdysseybytheItaliantheatre
groupStalkerandtheGlasgow-basedWorkingParty,aprojectfundedby
theScottishArtsCouncilthatformedpartofamonth-longseasonoftheatre,
andliteraryeventsinGlasgowbetweenOctoberandNovember2002.
Tavianoarguesthattheuseofnon-standardlanguageandthecommitment
oftheatrecollectivestophysicalactingformthecentralelementsofaresis-
tantapproachthatdistinguishesitselfbyitschallenginginterpretationof
foreigntheatre.Shesuggeststhataresistantapproachtothestagingofthe
workofforeignplaywrightssubvertsstrategiescentredonthe‘exotic’
nature of foreign plays by focusing instead on their political role.

In‘TheStyleofTranslation:DialoguewiththeAuthor’,thecontribution

fromJosephFarrell,ItalyandScotlandsimilarlyfigureprominently.‘The
wordsmaybelongtolanguagebutthevoicebelongstotheartist’,Farrell
observes,andproceedstodiscussthestyleofSicilianwriterVincenzo
Consolo.Inthecontextofthediscussionofhowtoconveyintranslationthe
impactcreatedbythedistinctivestyleofawriter,Farrellapproachesthe
issueofdialecttranslation.Healsobroachestheissueofthefunctionand
status of dialects in different languages, notably Scots and Italian.

WhileFarrellisadamantonthepointofwithholdingtheroleof‘second

creator’fromthetranslator,anincreasinglypopularwayofattractingthe
interestofBritishtheatre-goersisattemptingtobridgetheculturaldivide
betweensourceandtargetlanguageandcultureby‘domesticating’the
foreigntext.InChapter6,‘ChekhovintheTheatre:TheRoleoftheTrans-
latorinNewVersions’,HelenRappaportdiscussestheemergenceoverthe
lastfewdecadesofnewversionsoradaptationsofEuropeanplaysby
contemporaryBritishplaywrights,inparticularthefourmajorplaysby
AntonChekhov.Followingadiscussionofstrengthsandweaknesses
inherentinthewritingofnew‘versions’ofChekhovbyplaywrightswho
arenotspeakersofthesourcelanguageandpossesslimitedknowledgeof
19thcenturyruralRussia,Rappaportasksthelegitimatequestion:Whose
workisitanyway?Isitthestardramatistwhooftenleaveshissignatureon
the work produced by the literarytranslator, or the foreign playwright?

AccordingtoDavidJohnstonin‘TheCulturalEngagementsofStage

Translation:FedericoGarcíaLorcainPerformance’,inordertobridgethe
culturaldividebetweenthereceivingcultureandLorca’ssystemicpatterns
ofimagery,withtheircharacteristicallypowerfulinterplaybetween
animateandinanimateelementsdrawnfromtheeverydayworldofrural
Spainofthepast,thetranslatormayemploythesametacticsnormallyused
totransferculture-specificitems.Itisimportant,however,Johnstonargues,
thatthetranslatordoesnotallowLorca’sencyclopediaofreferencetopush
thetranslationprocesstowardsamerelylinguisticexercise.Theaimof

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Lorca’stheatreistoreframeexperience,whichmeansthatthetranslationof
culture-specificitemsinhiswritingisgovernedbyrhetoricalandstylistic
considerationsasmuchasbyanyexternalreferencing.Theauthor
concludesthattotranslateLorcaforperformancerequiresaclear-sighted
viewofhowtoprovidehimwithavoiceonstage,howtowritetowardshis
plays’potentialinordertoengageanaudienceandchargetheairinthe
theatre.

WritingaboutruralSpain,Lorcawouldfrequentlydrawonflower

symbolism;theSpanishwriterisnot,however,theonlywritertoemploy
thisformofimagery;floraaswellasfaunaareusedassymbolsinmany
languages.AttheendofAct2ofIbsen’sLittleEyolf,itisthroughflowers
thatAstasaysalastfarewelltoherbrotherAlfred.Theflowersarewater
lilies,theirbeautysuggestingpurity;throughthesymbolismoftheiruse,
Alfred’sobsessionisshownassomethingmorethanjustaweakness,some-
thingbeautifulinitsownway,butabeautythat,likethewaterlily,has
reached the surface from the deep bottom.

Assymbols,thelanguagesthatflowersspeakaremanyandvaried.At

thetimeofStrindberg,hyacinthswereassociatedwithdeathandfunerals
inSweden,asillustratedbytheailinggirlintheHyacinthRoominThe
GhostSonata.Lilacs,ontheotherhand,inSwedenstandforlightandearly
summer,asinMissJulie,wheretheypresideprominentlyonthekitchen
tablewhenJulieandJeanmeet,butinItalytheyreportedlyrepresentenvy.
AndinsomeEnglishvillages,alilacbranchmayalsosignifyabroken
engagement,potentiallyapplicabletothesituationoftheprotagonistof
MissJulie.FlowerimagesfigureprominentlyinStrindberg’swriting,and
thechoiceofflowerisrarelyrandom.Theselectionoftheflowerimageis
oftensensitivetothefabricoftheindividualplay,asdiscussedbyGunilla
AndermaninChapter8,‘ToBeorNottoBe(Untranslatable):Strindbergin
Swedish and English’.

InStrindberg’sEaster,thedaffodilrepresentsthecomingoflightaftera

winterofphysicalandspiritualdarkness.Ifreplacedbyalily,ashasoften
beenthecaseinEnglish-speakingproductionsoftheplay,thechangein
floweralsomeansachangeinthelanguageitspeaks:awhitelilywithits
associationsoffuneralsspeaksalanguagedifferentfromthatofasun-
soakeddaffodil.AccordingtoAnderman,aspectssuchasflowerandbird
symbolismneedtobeleftintactintranslationevenifwhattheystandforis
‘untranslatable’.OtheraspectsoftheSwedishplaywright’sworkmayalso
presentobstacles,Andermanargues,buttheseproblemsneednotdefy
translationifthetranslatororcreatorof‘newversions’makessuretodig
beneath the surface.

Foraprofessionaltranslatoroffiction,ontheotherhand,asolution

alwayshastobefoundtowhatmightatfirstsightappearuntranslatable.In
‘MindtheGap:TranslatingtheUntranslatable’,MargaretJullCosta,a

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literarytranslatorfromSpanishandPortuguese,acknowledgesthatshe
cannotaffordtobelieveinthe‘untranslatable’.Itisthetranslator’sjobto
translateeverything,knowingthattheremightbesomelossintranslation
but,asJullCostapointsout,theremightalsobesomegain.Amongthe
problemsshehashadtosolveinattemptingtobridgetheculturaldivide
betweentheworldinhabitedbythewriterswhosebooksshehastranslated
andtheEnglish-speakingworld,JullCostachoosestodiscussfirstthe
wordsusedtonamephenomenainthephysicalworld,thenlinguistic
obstaclessuchaspuns,idiomsandproverbs,and,inconclusion,historical,
geographicalandculturalreferences.Asanexampleofatranslation
problembelongingtothefirstcategory,shediscussesthetranslationof
queijadas,tartletsfilledwithamixtureofsugar,cinnamon,eggandfresh
cheese,auniquespecialityofSintra,thefashionablesummerretreatjust
outsideLisbon.As‘cheesecakes’conjureupthewrongassociations,Jull
Costa,whoisstillworkingonthetranslationasthisvolumegoestopress,is
choosingbetween‘cheesetartlets’and‘cheesepastries’.Inthecaseofthe
translationofpuns,sheacknowledgesthattheyaretoo,inasense,untrans-
latablebutothersmaybecreatedtoreplacethemaslongastheyarein
keepingwiththetoneandthetenoroftheoriginal.Thelastproblemwith
whichJullCostaisconcernedistherenderingofgeographicalandhistor-
icalreferences.Notfavouredbypublishersofforeignfiction,footnotesdo
notfigureprominentlyinhertranslations,althoughsheacknowledges
that,inhertranslationofLuísCardoso’sTheCrossing:AStoryofEastTimor,
theunfamiliaritytothereaderofplacenames,personalnamesandtermi-
nology made it necessary to include a glossary.

Referencestofoodsimilarlyconstituteaproblemforthetranslatorof

LewisCarrollintoDanish,asdiscussedin‘AliceinDenmark’.Inthis
chapter,ViggoHjørnagerPedersenandKirstenNaujaAndersencompare
DanishtranslationsofAliceinWonderland(1865)whichoriginateat
differentpointsintime,spanningtheperiodfrom1875to2000.Among
stumblingblocksforthetranslatorsuchasstyle,relatedlinguisticproblems
andallusions,theuntranslatabilityofculinaryreferencesfigurepromi-
nently.Forexample,Alicecomparesthetasteofoneofhermagicpotionsto
‘...custard,pineapple,roastturkey,toffyandbutteredtoast’,butatthetime
oftheearlytranslationssomeofthesewell-knownEnglishdelicacieswere
unknowninDenmark–even‘turkey’,thefunctionalequivalentofwhich,
accordingtotheauthors,islikelytohavebeenandesteg(‘roastduck’).In
conclusion,thetranslationsexaminedinthischapteraredeclaredtobe
failingtoliveuptotheoriginal,inpartbecauseoftheunwillingnessofthe
translatorstotakeonthechallengeofculturaladaptation.Inorderto
succeed,itisargued,thetranslationswouldhavehadtodepartmorefrom
thesourcetext,substitutingDanishjokesandwordplay.Butthen,asthe

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authorsadmit,thestorymightnothavebeenaboutAlice,butaboutMarie,
a different girl, a strategy attempted by only one of the translators.

Thedifferenceinapproachfavouredbytranslatorsisalsodiscussedby

NiamhChapelleandJennyWilliams,whoexaminetheuseofdifferent
strategiesadoptedbytwotranslatorsforbridgingthesameculturaldivide.
InChapter11,‘LittleSnowdropandtheMagicMirror:TwoApproachesto
Creatinga“Suitable”TranslationinNineteenth-centuryEngland’,they
examinetwotranslationsofthesame1857editionoftheGrimms’fairytale
Sneewittchen(SnowWhite),whichappearedwithinnomorethan11yearsof
eachother.Bothtranslatorsweretranslatingforyoungpeople,andinthe
prefacestheywereatpainstoexplainthattheyhadtriedtoensurethatthe
translationsweresuitablefortheiraudienceintermsofstyleandcontent.
Still,theresultingtranslationsturnedouttobeverydifferent.Thereasons
forthedifferencebetweenLittleSnowdrop(1863)andTheMagicMirror
(1871–4),theauthorsconclude,istobefoundinthetranslators’radically
differentdefinitionsof‘suitability’andtheirattitudetowardthetarget
audience.

Intheconcludingcontributiontothevolume,PiotrKuhiwczakpointsto

yetanotherfactorthatbearsontranslation:thepoliticalandeconomiclife
ofanationmayaffecttherelationshipbetweenoriginalandtranslated
literature.Inhiscontribution,‘FromDissidentstoBestSellers:PolishLiter-
atureinEnglishTranslationAftertheEndoftheColdWar’,Kuhiwczak
discussestheroleplayedbypoliticspriortothe‘velvetrevolutions’when
theprocessofselectionofliteraturetobepublishedintheEasternBlocwas
controlledbythestateapparatus–theMarxist-Leninistregimeconsidered
literatureanimportantpartofdogma.UsingPolandasthecountryof
exemplification,Kuhiwczakshowshowpoetry,previouslyinadominant
position,wasreplacedbyothernewgenresofliterature,introduced
throughasteadygrowthoftranslationfromEnglishintoPolish.Outside
Polandasimilarchangemadeitselfknown:UKpublishersbegantoapply
toPolishliteraturethesamecriteriaastheydidtotheliteraturesofother
countries.InparticularanewinterestbegantodevelopinPolishwriting
concerned with the ethnic and political dilemmas of Poland’s past.

ForwritersfromthispartofEuropeittookturbulenceandpolitical

changetohelpbridgetheculturaldivideandprovidethemwithavoicein
translation.

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Chapter 1

Voices in Translation

GUNILLA ANDERMAN

Introduction

AnenlargedEuropeanUnion,therapidgrowthofelectroniccommunica-

tionandtheemergenceofEnglishasthelinguafrancaofEuropearenow
providingEuropeanswitheasyaccesstotheculturalandliteraryheritageof
amultitudeofothernations.ButwhilethecitizensofEuropearebeginning
toexperiencedifferentculturesatfirsthand,manysocialandcultural
conceptsthattheyarenowencounteringwillremainunknownoutside
nationalbordersand,asaresult,lacklexicaldesignationinotherlanguages.
How,forexample,doesatranslatorrenderinanotherlanguagetheinforma-
tionthatspeakersconveywhentheyengageinadialogue,thewayinwhich
Englishdialectandsociolectinteracttomakelanguageauniqueindicatorof
classandeducation?AsBernardShawfamouslyremarked‘itisimpossible
foranEnglishmantoopenhismouthwithoutmakingsomeother
Englishmandespisehim.’Althoughdifferentfactorsmaycomeintoplayin
otherlanguagesspokeninothercountries,speakersstillhaveavoiceoftheir
ownforwhichwritershaveafinelyattunedear.Andwhentheworkofthe
writerreachesthetranslatorresponsiblefortransferringitintoanother
language,avoicehastobefoundinthenewlanguagethatcloselyresembles
thatoftheoriginal.Itisequallydifficultforthetranslatortofindappropriate
meansofexpressioninanotherlanguageforwhatspeakersmayengagein
dialogueabout:floraandfaunaandculturalcustoms,aswellasthesocial
andpoliticalconventionsthatarelittleknowntoanyoneoutsidethecountry
inwhichtheyformpartofeverydaylife.

ThisvolumefocusesontwoproblemsthatfacethetranslatorofEuropean

fiction:voicesspeakingacrossculturalborders,andthemeansofexpres-
siontoconveythesocialandculturalmilieuinwhichthespeakersare
rooted.Inparticular,attentionisgiventotheworkofBillFindlay–towhom
this collection of essays is dedicated.

Speaking across Cultural Borders

Foraplaywrightawareoftheimportanceoftheuniquenessofthevoice

ofeachcharacteronstage,recognisingtheproblemsfacingthetranslatoris

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butashortstep,asevidencedbyIbsen’scommentsinrelationtothetransla-
tion ofThe Wild Duck:

[...]consistentlyeverycharacterintheplayhastheirparticular,indi-
vidualwayofexpressingthemselves,throughwhichthedegreeof
theircultureandeducationismanifested.WhenforexampleGina
speaksweshouldhearimmediatelythatsheneverlearntanygrammar
andthatshewasbornintoalower,socialclass.Andthesameappliesto
alltheothercharacters.Thetaskofthetranslatoris,inotherwords,not
an easy one.

(Ibsen, 1891)

EquallyattunedtothedifferentvoicesofhischaractersistheSpanish

poetandplaywrightFedericoGarcíaLorca.Whileattendingaperformance
ofDoòaRositatheSpinster,Lorca’scousinMercedesDelgadoGarcíaimme-
diatelyrecognisedthattheprotagonist’sspeechderivedfromAsquerosa,
Lorca’shometown(Gibson,1989:406).InBrecht’splayabouttheravages
oftheThirtyYearWar,MotherCourageandHerChildren,theprotagonist
speaksinalanguagestronglycolouredbyherBavariandialect.Andinhis
commentarytohistranslationofTheCherryOrchardbytheRussianplay-
wrightAntonChekhov,MichaelFraynpointsoutthateachofthecharac-
tersspeaksintheirowndistinctivevoice,revealingtheireducation(orlack
thereof),placeofbirthandsocialclass(Frayn,1995:xxxix–xi).Failureto
capturethedifferenceinthespeechoftheChekhovcharactersthrough
simplytranslatingtheirlanguageintoStandardEnglishhasresulted,as
famouslyremarked,increatingtheimpressionthatallhisRussianpeasants
live in the vicinity of Sloane Square.

Givingeachcharacteravoiceofhisorherownrequires,however,that

thetranslatorfirsthasanawarenessofwherethecharacterslive,theirsocial
positionandtheirown,personalidiosyncrasiesinthesourceculture,and
alsotheabilitytofindthelexicalandgrammaticalmeansofmatching
expressionsinthetargetlanguage.Dialectintranslation,however,ismore
frequentlythannotrenderedintothestandardvariety,oftenasaresultof
thewaytranslationusedtoserveasameansoflanguageteachingand
learning.AlthoughthelastfewdecadesofModernLanguageteaching
haveembracedtheso-calledcommunicativeapproach,pedagogyhaslong
beeninfluencedbythemethodologyfavouredintheinstructionoftheclas-
sical languages.

Spoken Versus Written Language

IntheinstructionofGreekandLatin,translationwasusedasameansof

ensuringthatnewvocabularyhadbeenacquired:oftenstudentswere
worriedthattoocreativeaneffortwouldbepenalisedwithabadmarkand
wouldsettleforasclosetoaword-for-wordtranslationaspossible.In

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similarfashion,manytranslatorswouldalsosimplyreplaceonewordin
theforeignlanguagewiththeequivalentwrittenwordinthetarget
language.Andwithspokenvarietiesoftheclassicallanguagesnolongerin
existence,limitedattentionwasgiventodifferenceingenreandthefact
that people rarely speak the way they write.

Thelackofknowledgeaboutthespokenmodeoflanguagewas,

however,notofcrucialimportanceinthetheatre,asthespeechofordinary
peoplewasnotconsideredtobeappropriatelanguageforuseonstage.
When,in1914,Shaw’sPygmalionfirstopenedatHisMajesty’sTheatrein
LondonwithHerbertBeerbohmTreeasProfessorHigginsandMrsPatrick
CampbellasElizaDoolittle,theDailyExpresstookaCharingCrossflower
girl,ElizaKeefe,alongtotheHaymarket,loftilyreportingherreactionsto
theamusementofitsreaders:‘Well,I’venever‘adsuchanightinallme
natural...’.Whatoffendedthepaperswasnotthesocialinequitybutthe
useofbadlanguageonstage,especially‘notbloodylikely’,spokeninAct3.
IndignantlytheDailySketchheadlinepronounced:‘MrsPatrickCampbell
swears on stage and cultured London roars with laughter’ (Butler, 2001).

AsBernardShaw’spassionwithreformingEnglishsocietygrew,sodid

hisinterestinreforminglanguage.Intheearly1880shehadmetHenry
Sweet(1845–1912)whoseinterestinspokenlanguageresultedinthepubli-
cationofAHandbookofPhoneticsin1877.Adaptedin1890asAPrimerof
SpokenEnglish,itbecamethefirstscientifically-baseddescriptionof
educatedLondonspeechorReceivedPronunciation(RP).Intheprefaceto
Pygmalion,whichinthecharacterofProfessorHigginscontainsobvious
touchesofSweet,ShawreferstoSweet’s‘sataniccontemptforallacademic
dignitariesandpersonsingeneralwhothoughtmoreofGreekthan
phonetics’(Butler,2001).Thestudyofspeechsoundswasfurtheradvanced
byDanielJones(1881–1967)who,in1921,becamethefirstprofessorof
PhoneticsatLondonUniversity.Influentialinspreadingtheuseofthe
InternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA)throughouttheworld,hisefforts
providedthemechanismfortheuseoftranscriptionofspeechsounds.By
thetimeofhisretirementin1949DanielJoneshadcreatedadepartment
with a worldwide reputation.

Withtheinterestinthewrittenmodelongpre-datingthestudyof

spokenlanguage,itishardlysurprisingthat,intheteachingofforeign
languages,translationpaidscantattentiontolinguisticvariationandthat
textswereroutinelytranslatedintothestandardvarietyofthetarget
language.Asaresult,inthetransferfromsourcetotargetlanguage,the
specificcharacteristicsoftheindividualvoicesdisappearedandanew
blander text emerged, devoid of the force and colour of the original.

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Geographical and Historical Re-location

Inthecaseofaplayperformedonstage,thelinguisticaswellasthe

culturalobstaclesencounteredinthetransferfromonelanguageand
culturetoanotheraresometimesmosteasilyovercomebytransportingthe
play,eitherintime,byplacingitinadifferenthistoricalperiod,or
geographically,byfindingadifferentlocation.Examplesoftransposition
throughgeographicaland/orhistoricalre-locationofmodernEuropean
dramaarenumerous.IntheYaleRepertoryTheatre’sproductionofThe
CherryOrchardin2005,thecharactersworelate-19thcenturyclothesforthe
firsthalfoftheplay,thenweretransposedacenturyaheadto2005fashion,
languageandmusic.OneofthesongstheydancedtowastheRolling
Stones’s‘StartMeUp’.AnexampleofaFrenchplaytransposedtoanEnglish
settingisthe1996NationalTheatreproductionofVictorHugo’sLeRoi
s’amuse,titledThePrince’sPlayinaversetranslationbyTonyHarrisonthat
wassetinanEnglishmusichall.Asimilarexampleofcompleteacculturation
ofanItalianplaywouldbeBritishplaywrightMikeStott’srelocationof
EduardodeFilippo’sNataleincasacupiello(ChristmasattheCupiellos)to
YorkshireunderthetitleDuckingOut.AnexamplefromSpanishtheatreis
providedbythe1993productionofBohemianLights,whereDavidJohnston
replacedthe1920MadridofValle-InclánwithDublinin1915,theyear
beforetheEasterrising.Thepermutationsaremanyandvaried;inTheBlue
Room,DavidHaretransportedSchnitzler’sfindesiecleViennainReigenor
LaRonde,totheendofthe20thcenturyandchangedtheoriginallocationof
theplayintoanunspecified,globalmetropolis.Incontrast,bytrans-
plantingthesameplaytopresent-dayBelfast,CarloGebler’s10Rounds,at
theTricycletheatreintheautumnof2002,succeededinprovidingthesense
thattheoriginalhadofanentiresocietybeingeroded,afeaturearguably
missingintheHare/MendesversionattheDonmar,withitsanonymous
urban location (cf. Anderman, 2005, in particular Chapter 1).

Inadditiontorelocation,thereareotheroptionsavailabletomake‘for-

eignness’intranslationlessofanobstacleforEnglishtheatreaudiences.
Thereis,invirtuallyalldramatranslation,somedegreeof‘acculturation’
appliedtothefinalproduct(Aaltonen,1996).Thisprocessmaynotbetotal,
butmaysimplytaketheformofneutralisationthroughtoningdownwhat
isdeemedtobetoo‘foreign’–apracticeextendingasfarbackinhistoryas
theRomans.TranslatedfromGreekintoLatin,theRomancomedies
retainedtheirGreeksettinganditwasmadeperfectlyclearearlyoninthe
playthatthecharacterscladintheGreekmantlelivedinaGreekcity.The
actionwasusuallysetinAthens,thecitythatRomanaudiencesappar-
entlyconsideredtobemoreGreekthananyotherlocation.Accordingto
Plautus,thesuccessfulRomanadaptorofGreekcomediesintoLatin:‘Now
writersofcomedyhavethishabit:theyalwaysallegethatthesceneof

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actionisAthens,theirobjectbeingtogivetheplayamoreGrecianair’
(Gilula, 1989: 102).

Translation into Scots

Whetherre-locatedorjust‘acculturated,’thecharactersofaforeignplay

orworkoffictionstillneedtoretaintheirindividualvoicesinorderto
retaintheinterestofaudiencesandreaders.AndthisishowBillFindlay’s
workasatranslator,oftentogetherwithMartinBowman,marksanimpor-
tantstepforwardinTranslationStudies.Findlayfindsindividualvoicesfor
thesource-languagecharactersbydrawingadistinctionbetweenEnglish
andScots-speakingcharactersandbyusingdifferentScotslinguisticvari-
etiestoreflectmoresubtledistinctionsintheirapproachandpersonalities.
Inhistranslationforthestage,BillFindlayliftedthelanguageofthecharac-
ters from the page and gave them a voice of their own.

LittlehadbeenwrittenaboutdramadialecttranslationuntilBillFindlay

andMartinBowmanstartedtodiscusstheprocessfromtheperspectiveof
theirworkastranslators.Togetherthetwobroughttheplaysbyplaywright
MichelTremblayintoScotlandbytranslatingthejoualFrenchdialectof
Quebecinwhichtheyarewritten,intoScots.Findlay’sowntranslations
includehisversionofDieWeber(1892)byGerhartHauptmann,the1912
recipientoftheNobelPrizeforLiterature.ConsistentwithHauptmann’s
aimtoconveysocialistideasinanaturalistsettingwastheneedforThe
Weaverstobewritteninthelanguageactuallyspokenintheregioninwhich
theactiontookplace,andtheGermanoriginalwaswritteninthedistinc-
tivedialectofSilesia.Thefirstversionoftheplay,calledDeWaber,was
writteninuncompromisingdialect,butoncethestagepremièreofthis
versionwasprohibited,Hauptmannsettoworkonanewversion,now
calledDieWeber.AlthoughHauptmann’splayaboutthereal-lifeuprising
ofSilesianhandloomweaversinthe1840sappearedinprintin1892,
workingconditionshadlargelyremainedunchanged,andtheappearance
oftheplayarousedastorm.Whenfinallyperformedin1893,theplay
becamealiterarysensation.IftransferredintoaStandardEnglishmedium,
however,Hauptmann’soriginalSilesianislikelytobecomedilutedtothe
pointoffailingtomakecrediblethesocialpositionandworkingconditions
ofhisweavers.Theproblemofcapturingtherobustnessoftheoriginal
dialectinEnglishtranslationiscompoundedbythefactthattheevents
describedtookplacealongtimeago,andunlessthelanguageofthecharac-
tersisinkeepingwiththeperiod,thereisthepotentialdangerofanachro-
nism.AfurtherlinguisticproblemforthetranslatorisHauptmann’s
German,whichis‘masterlyhandled’;andhisreproductionofeveryday
speechwithitssubtlestnuancesis‘unsurpassed’,includingthedifferent
mixturesoflocaldialects,colloquialtalkandseverallayersofHighGerman

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(Grimm,1994:xiv).Infact,ithasbeensuggested(Maurer,1982:50)that
‘eventhemosttalentedandexperiencedtranslatorwithaperfectcommand
andknowledgeofGerman(includingnotonlyseveraldialectsbut,in
addition,varioussociolectsandidiolectstoo)willneversucceedin
renderingHauptmann’snaturalistictextsentirelysatisfactorily’.Partof
Hauptmann’stalentliesinhisabilitytoimbueallofhischaracterswith
distinct,individualvoices.‘Eachspeaksinhisowncharacteristiclanguage
withdistinctivedialecticalinflections,idiomaticpeculiarities,syntax,
speechrhythmandmelodyandevengestures’(Maurer,1982:50).
Hauptmann’splayshavebeendescribedasnotdependent‘primarilyon
subjectmatterthemeorevenlocation:thestuffofhisdramaislanguage’
(Skrine, 1989: 19).

AspointedoutbyFindlay(1998),theparticularfeaturewherebyallbut

themostperipheralofHauptmann’scharactersgenerateandcommunicate
theirpersonalitiesandshiftingsocialrelationshipsthroughlinguisticvari-
ationisafeaturealsofoundinScottishwriting.Inapositiontodrawona
variedlinguisticresourceembracingStandardEnglish,ScottishStandard
EnglishandScotsdialect,Scottishwritersareabletostyle-shiftbetween
thesedifferentlinguisticvarietiesastheyseefit.Asaresult,thenumerous
linguisticoptionsmadeuseofbyHauptmanncanfindtheirmatchinScots
dialect,offeringanumberofflexiblechoices;itcanbeurbanorrural,
regional or standardised, historical or contemporary.

InaplaysuchasTheWeaversonthethemeofworker/management

conflict,clearlinguisticsignalsareobviouslyneededtohighlightdiffer-
encesinoccupationand/orclass.Tothisend,Findlaymadethedecisionto
drawabasicdistinctionbetweenScotsandEnglish-speakingcharacters.
Hethentooktheprocessastepfurther,usingastiffvarietyofStandard
Englishtohelpreinforceanattitudeofinflexibilityinsomecharactersand
theirconcerntoupholdthestatusquoasreflectedintheirreactionstothe
weavers’action.Unmovedbytheirplight,PastorKittelhausshowslittle
understandingorsympathy,whichinturnisreflectedinhisuseofapomp-
ously correct and sanctimonious English:

PASTORKITTELHAUS:

Whenamanhasdeliveredsermonsfromthe

pulpitfifty-twoSundaysayearforsomethirtyyears–andthat’snot
countingtheHolyDaysinthecalender–ofnecessityheacquiresa
sense of proportion. (Findlay, 1998: 97)

Incontrast,SurgeonSchmidtisamoresympatheticcharacterwhoisable

torelatetotheweaversandtheirsuffering.Inordertoshowthatthisishis
attitude,Schmidtmakesuseofamoreconversationaltone,generously
pepperedwithScotticisms,asforinstancewhenhespeakstothelittlegirl
Mielchen:

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SCHMIDT:

HereMielchen,comeandhavealookieinmycoatpocket.

(Mielchendoesso.)Thegingersnapsareforyou–butdon’twolfthemall
atonce...Infact,I’llhaveasongfirst!‘Thetodrunoff...withebubbly,
bubblyjock,bubbly,bubblyjock...oh,justyouwait,younglady!
(Findlay, 1998: 97)

InthecaseofDreissiger,themanufacturer,thechoiceoflanguagewas

not,however,asclearcut.Whileapparentlyvoicingadegreeofcompas-
sion,Dreissigerretreatstohisoffice,referringtheweaverstoPfeifer,his
manager.AtbestDreissigercanbedescribedasambivalent,atworstas
hypocritical.Still,forDreissigersimplytohavebeenEnglish-speaking
wouldhavepolarisedhisrelationshiptotheweaverstothepointofturning
himintoacaricatureofacapitalist.Toavoidcreatingsuchastarkblack-
and-whitedistinction,Findlay’sversionhasDreissigeruseaScotssimilar
totheweaverswhile,atthesametime,makingitsufficientlydifferentiated
andlessdensetoleaveusinsufficientdoubtwhetherheisgoodorbad,
humaneorexploitative.FirstanexchangebetweenPfeifer,formerlyoneof
theweavershimself,andtheweaversasheisinspectingthecloththeyhave
made, dismissing their efforts:

PFEIFER:

(totheweaverstandingbeforehim.)Ifah’vetelltyewanceah’ve

tellyeahunnertimes!Yuvgoattaereddupyirwabsbetternorthis!
Lookatthestateo’thisclaith!Hit’sfuo’durt,bitso’straeaslang’sma
finger ... a’kinna muck an fulth.

WEAVERREIMANN:

Ah canna help stoor gittin intil it.

APPRENTICE:

(hasweighedthecloth)Thewecht’sshoartana’.(Findlay,

1998: 98)

AndhereisDreissiger,whenthestarvingweaverladdiefaints,inhis

ScotstemperedbyEnglish,allowinghimtoveerbetweenfamiliarityand
superiority:

DREISSIGER:

It’sadoonrichtdisgrace.Thebairn’sjistaskelf,thurs

nuthino’him.Hooonybodykinca’thumselsamitheranfaitheran
treat thir bairns that wey ah jist don’t know ... (Findlay, 1998: 99)

Throughacrueltwistofirony,oldHilse,theonlyweavertoremainfaith-

fullyathisloom,becomesthearbitraryvictimofabullet.Reflectinghis
individualisminhisuseoflanguage,Hilse’sconversationalScotsis,in
Findlay’sversion,mademorerestrainedthanthatoftheotherweavers;itis
alsosuffusedwithreligiosityintheformofreferencestoGod,theLord,the
DayofJudgementandvengeance.Throughtheinclusioninhisspeechof
‘biblicalEnglish’,sprinkledwithScotsitems,alanguageiscreated,distinc-
tiveofsomeoneGod-fearingandresignedtothelifeGodhasmetedoutto
him,whichsetshimapartfromtheotherweaverswhomhedeclinestojoin

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intheirstandagainstauthority.Here,attheopeningofAct5,herecitesa
family prayer:

HILSE:

OurFather,weofferupourthankfulnessthatinThyalmighty

graceandgoodnessThouhavethisnichtcastyourbenevolenceupon
us.Weofferourthankfulnesstoo,thatthisnichtThouhaveprotected
usfrommisfortune.Lord,Thygraceisinfinite:westandherebefore
you, poor hummle sinners ... (Findlay, 1998: 101)

Throughthecreativeuseofdialectvarietiesavailableinanotherlang-

uage,Hauptmann’splay,whichdefiestransferintoStandardlanguagehas
beenrecreatedintranslation.Toofrequently,theweaversofHauptmann’s
SilesianplayhavebeenbereftofavoiceinEnglishtranslation.Findlay’s
achievementistoprovideanimaginativeversionofthedialect-coloured
essenceofalittle-knownGermanplay,writtenbyoneoftheleadingrepre-
sentatives of modern European drama.

InTheWeaversFindlaytransferredthedialectofthesourcelanguageinto

atargetlanguagedialect.InBairns’Brothers,histranslationofRaymond
Cousse’sEnfantillage(Findlay,2000),acontemporaryplaywritteninStan-
dardFrench,healsoeschewsStandardEnglishinfavourofaScotsdialect
version,thistimeinordertocapturethelanguageofaspecialsocialgroup
at a given period of time.

Enfantillagesissetinacountryvillageinthe1950sandtakestheformofa

monodramawithoneactorplayingMarcel,ayoungboyofworkingclass
origin.Thereisalsoamultitudeofothercharacters,bothchildrenand
adults,whosevoicesareheard,relativesaswellasmembersofthevillage,
allmediatedbytheboy.Thenumberofcharactersprovidesagooddegree
ofscopeforincorporatingcontrastingspeechvarieties.Findlayfirstestab-
lishesanobviouscontrastbetweentheScotsspeechofthelocalvillagerand
theEnglishspokenbythesprinklingof‘professionals’whospeakStandard
English,suchastheteacher,thepriestandthevet.Anexceptiontothis
broaddistinctionbetweentheScots-speakingvillagersandEnglish-
speaking‘professionals’isthebossoftheundertakers.Arrivingatthe
familyofthebereaved,hisoccupationalroledemandsthathespeakssemi-
formally.Tothisend,incertainsituationsFindlayhashimspeakratherstiff
English:thisisforexamplethecaseinScene9,‘TheDeathofMarcel’where
he first addresses the family:

Gooddayladiesandgentlemenweapologisefordisturbingyouwe’ve
comeforthebox...(tohismen)Kindlybringforwardthebox,
gentlemen, and don’t forget your nails, Gaston. (Findlay, 2000: 43)

Heretheundertakeraddresseshismenaswellasthefamilyofthe

bereavedand,asaresult,thereisanoteofformalitytohislanguage.This

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differs,however,fromthewayhespeaksdirectlytohismen;nowheisat
ease and his language is more natural:

That’s us Gaston doon a wee bit oan your side
straightforrit at that. (Findlay, 2000: 43)

AndwhenMarcel’ssistertriestoclingtothecoffin,heisverygentlewith

her, something that shows in his language:

Comeonnowlassyoumustnaegetyourselfintaeastatelikethisyou’re
young you’ve yir haill life in front of you. (Findlay, 2000: 43)

WhilethewordsinScotsarefatherlyandinformal,fulfillingthefunction

ofshowinghissympathyandkindnesstotheyounggirl,thereisstillanote
ofrestraintinhisspeechasheisspeakingtoamemberofthebereaved
family.HenceheisspeakinginamodifiedformofScots.Hadhespokenina
fully fledged register, Findlay points out, he is more likely to have said:

Come oon noo lass ye mustnae git yirsel aw wrocht up
likthisyoungye’veyirhaillinfrontaeye.(Findlay,2000:44)

AsinTheWeavers,inhistranslationofEnfantillagesBillFindlaygivesa

voicetoagroupofspeakerslivingataparticularpointintime.Together
withMartinBowman,hegavethecharactersofQuebecplaywright
MichaelTremblay,livinginMontreal,alanguagewithwhichtospeakin
translation.ForthefirstperformanceattheTronstageinGlasgowin1989,
TheGuidSisters,theirversionofTremblay’splayLesBelles-soeurs,wenton
thefollowingyeartoTorontoandthenextyeartotheEdinburghFestival
FringebeforetakingthestageinMontrealitself.Itwasthefirstofeight
Findlay-Bowman‘trans-creations’ofTremblay’splays,includingASolemn
MassinSummer,seeninGlasgow,PerthandEdinburghaswellasLondon,
TorontoandNewYork.FindlayalsoworkedwithBowmantotranslate
fromQuébecoisintoScotsJeanne-ManceDelisle’sTheReeloftheHanged
Man(see Chapter 2, this volume).

Itistobehopedthat,followingBillFindlay’sexample,moretranslators

andTranslationStudiesscholarswillhelpbridgeculturaldividesandgive
speakersofotherlanguagesandcountriesvoicesthat‘sing’intranslation.

Note

1.Unless otherwise indicated, translations throughout are my own.

References

Aaltonen,S.(1996)AcculturationoftheOther:IrishMilieuxinFinnishDrama

Translation.Joensuu: University Press.

Anderman,G.(2005)EuropeonStage:TranslationandTheatre.London:Oberon

Books.

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Butler,R.(2001)GeorgeBernardShaw:MyFairLady.NationalTheatreperformance

programme.

Findlay,B.(1998)SilesianintoScots:GerhartHauptmann’sTheWeavers.Modern

DramaXLI,90–104.

Findlay,B.(2000)Standardintodialect.Missingthetarget?InC-A.Upton(ed.)

Moving Target(pp. 35–46) Manchester: St Jerome.

Frayn, M. (trans.) (1995)Anton Chekov: The Cherry Orchard. London: Methuen.
Gibson, I. (1989)Federico García Lorca: ALife. London: Faber and Faber.
Gilula,D.(1989)GreekdramainRome:Someaspectsofculturaltransposition.InH.

ScolnicovandP.Holland(eds)ThePlayOutofContext(pp.99–109).Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

Grimm,R.(ed.)(1994)PlaysbyGerhartHauptmann,NewYork:Continuum

Publications.

Ibsen, H. (1891) Letter to Victor Barrucand, 6 March.
Maurer, W.(1982)Gerhart Hauptmann. Boston: Twayne Publishers.
Skrine,P.(1989)Hauptmann,WedekindandSchnitzler.London:PalgraveMacmillan.

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Chapter 2

From Rouyn to Lerwick:
The Vernacular Journey of Jeanne-
Mance Delisle’s ‘The Reel of the
Hanged Man’

MARTIN BOWMAN

Introduction

On29March2000attheTraverseTheatreinEdinburgh,StellarQuines,

anEdinburgh-basedcompanyfocusingonworksbyandaboutwomen,
premieredtheirproductionofQuebecplaywrightJeanne-ManceDelisle’s
TheReeloftheHangedMan.ThetranslationintovernacularScotsofUn«reel»
benbeau,bentristewascommissionedfromtranslatorsMartinBowmanand
BillFindlay,bestknownfortheirScotstranslationsofMichelTremblay.
Overthenextfiveweeks,theproductionwasgiven14performances:in
Edinburgh,Lerwick,Glasgow,StirlingandPaisley.Thiswastheplay’s
Europeanpremiereanditsfirsttranslationintoanylanguage.Unlikemany
Quebecplays,includingDelisle’sALiveBirdinItsJaws(Unoiseauvivant
danslagueule),forwhichshereceivedTheGovernor-GeneralofCanada’s
AwardforbestplayinFrenchin1987,Un«reel»benbeau,bentristehasnever
beenproducedinEnglishinCanada.InQuebec,however,theplay,
regardedasanimportantworkinQuebecdramaturgy,hasbeenproduced
severaltimes.ItpremieredattheThéâtredeCoppeinRouyn,Abitibiin1978
andwastouredthefollowingyearinanotherproductiontoeightvenues
throughouttheregionofAbitibi-Témiscamingue,includingBarraute,where
Delislewasbornandraised.Amongotherimportantproductionswere
thosepresentedattheThéâtreduBoisdeCoulonge,QuebecCity,in1979;
theThéâtreduNouveauMonde,Montreal,in1981;andtheThéâtredela
Bordée, Quebec City, in 1993.

TheproductioninEdinburghoftheScotstranslationalmostdidnot

happen.ItschoicebyStellarQuinesledtoamuch-publicisedinternal
differenceofopinionthatculminated,inNovember1999,intheresignation
ofco-founderGerdaStevensonandboardmemberJanetPaisley.TheScot-
tishpresshadafielddaycoveringthestory,whichhadasecondlifein

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February2000,whenColinMarr,thedirectoroftheEdenCourtTheatrein
Inverness,cancelledtheonlyscheduledperformanceintheHighlands.The
storywasevencoveredbytheNationalPostinCanada,whichpublisheda
shortarticleon17November1999undertheheadline,‘Quebecplaycauses
Scottishdrama’(Brown,1999).WhenSteveCramer(2000)reviewedthe
productioninTheList,hedismissedwhathadhappenedasa‘hullabaloo’;
JoyceMcMillan’s(2000)reviewinTheScotsman,however,underthehead-
line‘Searinglightonafamily’sdarksecret’saidthatTheReeloftheHanged
Manwas‘oneofthemostcontroversialplaystobestagedinScotlandfor
years’.

WhenIwasinvitedtocontributeanarticletothiscollectionofessays

dedicatedtothememoryofmycollaboratorandfriend,BillFindlay,I
suggestedtotheeditorsthatIwritesomethingaboutthetranslationof
Delisle’sUn«reel»benbeau,bentriste.Ididso,notbecauseofthecontroversy
thathaunteditspre-productiondaysinScotland,butbecausetheplay
allowedustoexplorenewterritoryasfarasthetranslationofplaysinto
vernacularlanguageisconcerned.BillandIhadagreatdealofsuccesswith
theplaysofMontrealplaywright,MichelTremblay.From1989to2003,
eightofourScotstranslationsofhisplayswereproducedinScotlandbythe
followingcompanies:TronTheatre,Glasgow(TheGuidSisters,TheReal
Wurld?andHosanna);TraverseTheatre(TheHouseamongtheStarsand
SolemnMassforaFullMooninSummer);PerthTheatre(TheHouseamongthe
Stars);LadderManProductions(ForeverYours,Marie-Lou);ClydeUnity
(Albertine,inFiveTimes),andRoyalLyceumTheatre,Edinburgh(IfOnly...).
Itisnoexaggerationtosaythatthesetranslationsreceivedtheattentionof
someofthemostaccomplishedtheatreartistsinScotland.BillandIwere
alwaysassurprisedasweweredelightedtohavearealcareerinthetheatre,
basking as translators in the glory of Michel Tremblay’s wonderful plays.

Wewerealso,itmustbesaid,frustratedinourdreamofbringingother

QuebecplaywrightstotheScottishstage.Veryearlyon,wehadtranslated
DominicChampagne’sLaRépétition(TheRehearsal)andMichel-Marc
Bouchard’sLesFeluettes(TheSkelfs),butneitherhasbeenproduced.

Much

hasbeenwrittenabouttheScotstranslationsofMichelTremblaybut,asfar
asIknow,TheReeloftheHangedMan,apartfromthepresscoverageand
reviewsin1999and2000,hasreceivednoattentionatall.Theatrecriticsand
academicsalikehaveexaminedwithzealthesuccessofTremblayinScot-
land.Mostfamously,Tremblaywasdubbed‘thegreatestplaywrightScot-
landneverhad(Fisher,1992)andoneofhisplaysinScots,TheHouseamong
theStars(LaMaisonsuspendue),wasdescribedasawork‘whichspeaksinti-
matelytotheScottishsoul’(Linklater,1992).Initsownway,itcanbesaid
thatTheReeloftheHangedManstruckanerveinthecollectiveScottish
psycheaswell.Forustranslators,theplayofferedtheopportunitytowiden
ourexperimentthroughthetranslationofaplaybyawriterwhoisseenin

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QuebecaswritinginadramaticregisterdifferentfromTremblay’s.

Robert

Lévesque(1992:53),foratimethedeanofQuebectheatrecriticsandlatterly
lesssympathetictowardsTremblaythanhehadbeen,inaturn-of-the-
centuryarticlesaidofDelislethat‘shehasauniquevoice...aspoeticasitis
dramatic...whereonefindsanobilityofcharacter,agrandeur,aneroticis-
ationofthesoulthatreducesthedramaturgyofTremblaytoasimplifica-
tionoftheworld...’(Levesque,1999:53).

Withoutinanysenseagreeing

withLévesque’slatter-dayturningawayfromthemasterofQuebectheatre
(Levesque,1992:A4),

4,5

BillandIsawinhisassessmentofDelisleaninsight

intoanessentialaspectofherworkwherevernacularlanguageistakentoa
levelbeyondthequotidiantosomethingthatDelisleherselfidentifiesas
atavisticandritual:‘Iamfascinatedbyprimitivebeings.Iwouldliketogo
backtothesource.Iwouldliketopenetratethesecretofprimordialbeings’
(Delisle, 2001: 101).

The Genesis of the Project

ForBillandme,theraisond’êtreofourworkastranslatorswastoexplore

towhatdegreetheScotslanguagecouldcarryplayswritteninavernacular
language,specificallyinthecaseofourcollaboration,thevariousvernac-
ularformsofFrenchthatcanbefoundinQuebec.InTremblay’scase,we
weretranslatingnotonlyjoual,theurbandialectofworking-class
Montreal,butalsoinTheHouseamongtheStarsadialectwithruralrootsin
thelanguagespokenbythe1910characters(theplayissetinthreetimes:
1910,1950and1990).InMichel-MarcBouchard’sTheSkelfs,mostofwhich
issetinthenorthernLacSt.JeantownofRobervalin1912,wehadanother
regionalvarietyofQuebecFrench.TheReeloftheHangedManaffordedus
anotherintriguingpossibility,fortheplayissetinthe1960sinremote
Abitibi,severalhundredmilesnorthwestofMontreal,inaruralareasettled
inthe1930sbyurbantransplantsfromtheStLawrenceValleywhobrought
theirurbandialectwiththem.Inotherwords,Delisle’scharactersspeakan
urbandemoticinafar-distantruralregionunlikeanyotherinQuebec,a
place,inEuropeantermsatleast,withalmostnohistory.Abitibi,which
onlybecamepartoftheprovinceofQuebecin1898,iscertainlyaplacewith
noexactequivalentinScotlandwherethereis,forexample,noScots-
speakingenclaveofrecentestablishmentintheGaelic-speakingHigh-
lands.Additionally,DelisleusesQuebecfiddlemusicasanintrinsicpartof
theplay.Thefiddlespeaksanotherkindofvernacularasitwere,andone
derivedfromtheScots-Irishfolkmusictradition.BillandIwereintrigued
toseehowthismusicallanguageofthepeoplemightreturntoitsScottish
rootsinaplaywhoseverystructureisderivedfromtheformofthereel.
Furthermore,ineschewinganaturalisticmodeforherplay,Delislechal-
lengescertainassumptionsaboutthenatureofplayswritteninvernacular

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languageasshemovesbeyondrealismintoanothermode,aninnovation
thatmightbecalled,forwantofanotherterm,vernacularritual.Inother
words,therewereatleastthreeimportantanddistinctreasonswhyBilland
IwantedtomakeaScotstranslationofUn«reel»benbeau,bentriste.Imust
stressherethatwewerededicatedtotranslation,andnotinanywaytoadap-
tationintoaScottishculturalmilieu.Somecommentatorshavewrittenabout
theScottishappropriationoftheplayswehavetranslated,butwewere
alwaysconvincedthatsuchappropriationwasintheearofthebeholder
(particularly,butnotonly,bynon-Scots)andnotinthetextsthemselves.

TheprojecttotranslateDelisle’splaybegansimplyenoughwhen,in

1998,BillFindlayandIreceivedaninvitationtotranslateaplaybya
QuebecwomanplaywrightforStellarQuines.Twentyyearsearlier,when
BillhadaskedmeiftherewasaQuebecplaywemighttryinScots,Ihad
chosenunhesitatinglyMichelTremblay’sground-breakingLesBelles-soeurs
(‘TheGuidSisters’inourtranslation).Iwasevenmoreimpetuousin
decidingontheworkforStellarQuinesasIknewmychosenplayonlyby
reputation.InMarch2000Iwroteaboutthegermoftheideainanarticlein
TheScotsmanwhereIdescribewalkingpasttheThéâtreduNouveau
MondeinMontrealonewintryeveningin1981andseeingonthemarquee
atitleinvernacularFrenchwiththeword‘reel’init(Bowman,2000).Atthe
time,however,BillandIwerestillwaiting–withlittleexpectationof
success–forsomethingtohappenwith‘TheGuidSisters’.Wehadfinished
ourtranslationofTremblay’splayin1980,butitreceivednoattentionuntil
1987whenitwas‘discovered’byProfessorIanLockerbieofStirling
UniversityandgivenaprofessionalreadingdirectedbyTomMcGrathat
theEdinburghFringeFestivalinAugustthatyear.Manyyearslater,
however,theplaywiththeintriguingtitlehadremainedwithme,and,
whenIreadUn«reel»benbeau,bentristein1998,Ifoundaplaythatseemed
tometofitthemandateofthecommissioningcompanyasdescribedinits
publicitymaterial:‘StellarQuineswasformedin1993toreflecttheenergy,
experienceandperspectiveofwomeninScottishtheatre.Itisacompanyto
stimulate,supportandenablewomentotakecontroloftheirprofessional
livesintheatrebyproducingworkoftheveryhighestquality,incollabora-
tionwithmenwhosharetheirvision’.

Iwroteadetailed13-pageproposal

forStellarQuines,includingafullsummaryoftheaction,andtheplaywas
accepted for production by the company’s board.

Theworkingtitleforourtranslationwasliteraland,liketheoriginal,in

thevernacular:‘AGeyBraw,GeySadReel’.Whenwethoughtitover,
however,thetitlehighlightedforusoneoftheprincipalchallengesof
findingaScotsequivalentforDelisle’sAbitibivoice.Wewerecertainly
fullyconsciousthatthiswasaworldverydifferentfromwhatwehad
becomeaccustomedtointranslatingTremblay.Wewereuncomfortable
withtheconnotationoftheword‘gey’inthecontextofDelisle’svision.An

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accuratetranslationof‘ben’,thedialectformofbien(meaningreallyor
very),‘gey’isawordtarnishedbyitsassociationwiththeScottish‘literary’
schoolknownas‘thekailyard’,whichpresentsanidealisedandsentimen-
talisedruralworld.Furthermore,onecouldforgiveapotentialaudiencein
Scotlandforfailingtorealisethatanightoutwithfiddlemusicwasgoingto
presentacruel,bleakplaceinthelandscapeofthehumanheart.Martial
Dassylva,reviewingthe1979productionattheThéâtreduBoisde
Coulongedescribedanaudiencespellboundandtroubledbytheclosed
universeoftheplay(1979a)‘wherethemostsecretemotionsareidentified,
wherethemostprimitivedesiresaredeclared,andwheretheQuebec
familyisdemytholigisedwiththebrutalityofafistintheface’.

Inanother

articleheexplainedfurther,andnotwithouthumour:‘Delisle’splayplaces
itselfatagreatdistancefromtheclichésofthegoodsettlerquietlysmoking
hispipeinthemidstofathickcloudofchildrenandblackflies’(1979b:B4).

Sowedroppedtheword‘gey’fromourtitle,andeventually‘ABraw,Sad
Reel’,atthesuggestionofMurielRomanes,becameTheReeloftheHanged
Man,namedafter‘LeReeldupendu’,thespecificQuebecreelthatDelisle
features in her play.

Vernacular Music: The Function of the Reel in the Play

Thisreel–thismusicofthefolk–isthefoundationoftheplay,itsessen-

tialformaswellasitscentralsymbol.ThroughthereelDelisletranscends
languageandcreatesthemusicalarc,asitwere,ofhertransformationofthe
Abitibidreamintothehardrealitythatunderminesit,andwhichisatthe
centreofthemalaiseofthefamilydramaactedoutintheplay.ForAbitibi,
perhapsmorethananyotherregioninQuebec,embodiesafailedsocial
dream.AsGilbertDavid(1979:116)wrote,‘Jeanne-ManceDelisle’stext
plungesintotheheartofthedisillusionmentthatisAbitibi,inthefifties,at
themomentwhenthesonsanddaughtersofthefirstsettlersfelttheeffectsof
theunhealthyfalloutofanideologyofthe‘promisedland...’

Iexplained

thisfortheaudienceofTheReeloftheHangedManinaprogrammenote:

DuringtheDepression,thegovernmentgrantedlandinAbitibito
southernQuebecerswhowishedtotrytheirluckatfarming,butwithin
agenerationthedreamofanewlifeofprosperityhadshatteredagainst
therockofthathardplace.Formany,theprojectofresettlementended
infailureeveninthefirstgeneration.Itisthesepeopleandtheirchil-
dren who are the subject of Delisle’s play. (Bowman, 2000)

Delislebeginsandendsherplaywiththevernacularmusicofthefiddle.In
fact,thefiddlerisonstageandinvolvedintheperformancethroughoutthe
play.Inanoteinthepublishedtext,Delisleexplainshermusicalintention:

The‘Reeldupendu’...isthemusicalthemeofthewholeplay.Atthe

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beginningofSceneOne,[the]rockmusic[is]inspiredbythemelodicline
ofthetheme.Throughouttheplay...itisessentialthatthereel,thetradi-
tionalmusicofthepeople,shouldnotlosethecharacterofitsoriginsin
society.Otherinstrumentsmustnotdrownoutthesoundofthefiddle;it
isthatinstrumentwhichmustdominate.(Delisle,2000:105)

Musicthenisattheheartofthevernacularvoiceoftheplay.Iflanguage,as
LindaGaboriauhasnoted(Bowman,2003:43),isanadditionalcharacterin
mostQuebecplays,theninDelisle’splay,therearetwosuchcharacters:the
spokendemotic,asymbolitselfofthefailureofsocialrelocationthatgives
Abitibioneofitsprincipalcharacteristics,andthemusicallanguageinto
whichthespokenlanguageissubsumed.Both,ofcourse,havetheirequiv-
alentsinScotland.GilbertDavidinhisreviewnotesthisconjunctionof
music and narrative in Delisle’s play:

Poverty,ignorance,andmoralismlettheirdiscordantvoicesbeheard
loudandclear.Inthemannerofalament,theacting,whichis
extremelytautandphysical,elongatesthegestures,the...movements,
andthesilences.Inthisvertiginousstyle,thefiddlerbecomestheprin-
cipalagentoftheaction;theplayerofthereeldoesnotonlycommenton
theactionlikethechorusinaGreektragedy,heis,inhistornaccents,
hisstaccato,hisbrokensounds,hissavagelyricism,aprimaryinter-
preter,acollectivemoanlamentingthesmallnessofahumanityso
fallen and defeated.(David, 1979: 117)

ThisaspectofDelisle’suseofvernacularfiddlemusicisnowheremore
importantthanattheclimaxoftheplayintheseventhofeightsceneswhere
thereisakindofritualdanceofdeath.Delisleexplainedherconceptionin
an ‘Author’s Note’ at the beginning of the scene:

Inthisscene,themusicshouldfollowPierrette[whoisdancingtorid
herselfofanunwantedpregnancy]atthesametimeasshedrivesitforward
inaviolentandwildrhythm.Thereissomethingspell-bindingandbewitching
aboutthemusic(conveyedbyacomplementaryimprovisationbetweenthe
actorandthemusician).Itismusicforaprimitivesacrificialdancewhich
envelopsPierretteinaspiralofmadness.Findinthefiddletheaccentsand
rhythms of desperate violence.(Delisle, 2000: 138)

Notonlydoesthemusicbecometheagentofthedrama,butthestructure
itselfofDelisle’splayisbased,asAndréG.Bourassahasnoted,onthe
musicalformofthereel:‘Actually,theentireplayisareel,aworkwhich
turnsandreturnsinallitsaspectstothesameproblem,thatofimpossible
loveandthatofartastheopponentoffate...oneshouldhear‘LeReeldu
pendu’ as a ritual, repetitive, warding off of fate’ (Bourassa 1981: 37).

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ThisdefianceoffatecanbeseeninthenarrativeofthereelthatDelisle

includes in the play:

Onceuponatimetherewasthisman,afinegentleman,buthe’ddonea
verybadthing.Sobadthathehadtobepunishedforit.[...]Thejudges
sentencedhimtaehangfaearope.(Makingagesturetoshowanoose
closingaroundathroat.)Cric!Butbeforetheyputhisheidinthenoose,
theyaskedhimifhehadalastwish.Thebadmanupandanswered:
‘Aye!Afiddle.’Well,thejudgesbursttheirsideslaughin:‘Ha!Ha!Ha!’
Buttheyagreedtaehisrequestandbrunghimafiddle;jistashe’d
askedfor.Itwasafiddlejistlikeyours,wiwanstringthesameasyours.
Anddoyouknowwhatthatbadmandid?Heplayedareel.Abraw,
sadreel–asortaejigthatnaebodyhadeverheardbefore.Infact,itwas
thatbrawthatthejudgescouldnaebringthemselvestaepunishhim.So
hewasnaehanged,andtherewasnaetheterriblesoundae‘Cric!’
Instead,thefinegentlemanplayedhisfiddlelikebilly-ohandthehaill
crowd danced wi delight! Everybody danced! (Delisle, 2000: 114)

AndeverybodydiddanceintherealfamilyuponwhichDelislebasedher
play.Infact,therewouldbenoplayifDelisleasayoungwomanhadnot
knownthisfamily.Un«reel»benbeau,bentristeisverymuchaquestfor
understandingonthepartofitsauthorintotheemotionalcomplexityofan
idiosyncraticfamilysheknewwhengrowingupinAbitibi.Thestoryof‘Le
Reeldupendu’servesasakindofdeclarationofartisticintentiononthepart
ofDelisle,who,positioningherselfasanobserver,resistshastyorsimplistic
judgement.

The Play in Quebec

InOctober1999,ItravelledtoAbitibitomeetJeanne-ManceDelisleand

totalkabouttheplay.Bornin1939,shetoldofanupbringingwhereshewas
taughttoobserveandrespecttheprinciplesofanaustere,strictformof
Roman-Catholicism.Therewasafamily,however,wholivedalifefullof
musicandlaughter,committingwithgustovirtuallyeverymortalsinand
livingakindofsavagefreedom.Theywenttochurchbutjustforthesocial
outing.TheirwildenergyfascinatedDelisle(Corrivault,1979).

Shesaid

thateverythingintheirlifewasapretextforlaughter.Thereseemedtobe
nomoralsandnorules;therewasasensualvigourinthefreedomthey
lived.Unlikeherownhome,theirswasfullofmusic.Theysang.Everyone
playedthefiddle.Evenateightinthemorning,therewasarecordonthe
gramophone.Delislealsospokeoftheviolenceandconstanttensioninthe
house,ofgreatfightsbetweenfatherandson,andexuberanceforthiskind
ofbehaviour.ShediscussedatlengththemanwhobecameTonioMorinin
theplay,thefatherofthefamily.Hehadbeenoneofthosesettlerswhocame

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upfromthesouthtothepromisedlandofAbitibi.Whenthedreamwent
sour,sodidthefather’slife.Hebecamearebelandrejectedeverything.He
turnedtowardstheloveofhisdaughterinawaythatwaslikegoingbackto
thetimewhenhewasyoungwithhiswife.Delislespokeofhisincestuous
feelingsasakindofprimitivereflex.Inaway,hewasgoingsubconsciously
asfarashecouldtoachievehisowndestruction.Delislesaidhewentmuch
furtherthanhissexualdesireinexpressingtheanarchythatwashis
responsetowhathadhappened.Thefamilywasunabletoescape.Itwasas
iftheywereinaboatinastormandjusthadtorideitout.Whenyouarein
thatkindofsituation,you’vegottorow.However,andthiswasthecruxof
Delisle’s fascination, if there wasn’t any hope, there was a lot of fun.

Theplaythatwasmadeoutofthismaterial,ofcourse,isaworkofimagi-

nationratherthanhistory.Thestoryissimplethoughthetreatment
complex.Tonio,inhisfifties,andhis48-year-oldwifeLauretteMorin–she
isidentifiedthroughouttheplaynotbynamebutastheMother–havefour
childrenlivingathomeinanisolatedpartofthecountry:mentally-retarded
Gérald,20;Pierrette,18;Simone,16;andColette,15.Anolderdaughter
namedRéjeannelivesinAmos,theclosesttown,butdoesnotappearinthe
play.However,herhusbandCamille,whoisinhisthirties,playsanimpor-
tantpartintheaction;itishewhoisspeakingtoGérald,alsoknownasTi-
Fou(orLittleCrazyOne),inthepassagequotedaboveabout‘LeReeldu
pendu’.

TheplaybeginswithacardgameinwhichDelisleestablishesTonio’s

desireforhisdaughterPierrette.Heleavesfortown,returningafterthree
days’absenceatthebeginningofthesecondscene.Amongthepurchases
hehasmadeisaone-stringfiddle,agiftforGérald.HegivesPierrettea
watch,andtheyflirt.Intheensuingaction,Tonioisangeredbythemocking
behaviourofhiswifeanddaughtersandmenacesthembybrandishinga
knife.

Inthethirdscene,Camillearrives,ostensiblyonasocialvisit.He

recountsthestoryofthereeltoGérald.Colettevolunteersanother,cruder
storyaboutamanwholeaveshisstarvingfamilyforthreedaysandreturns
withnothingbutabaloneysausageandsanitarynapkins.Everyonelaughs
atherpunchline:‘Trymakinasandwichootaethat’(Delisle,2000:115).
Variousstories,allofwhichmakefunoutofthefamily’smiserablecondi-
tion,endinlaughter.Camille,gettingserious,suggeststhatTonioshould
bechargedwithneglectofhisfamilialresponsibilitiesaswellasfor
corruptingPierrette,butthewomenareatfirstunwillingtoincriminate
him.Camillesayshehasalreadynotifiedthepolice.Inthefourthscene
Tonio arrives, drunk and singing. Policemen enter, and he is arrested.

Inthefifthscene,theMothertellsGéraldthestoryofRapunzel,which

Pierrettedisruptswithherownunromanticversion.Bytheendofthe
scene,Pierrette’sversiontakesprecedence:theprincesshasdrowned

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herselfintheriverandtheprincehasbecomeanoverweightalcoholic.Left
alone,CamilleandPierretteplaysillygamesthatbecomeincreasingly
erotic.Theygoofftogethertoabedroom.TheMotherinterruptsthemand
tellsCamilletoleave.Inthesixthscenethereisaharrowingconfrontation
betweenTonioandtheMother.Attheend,shetellshimtoleave.Hedoesso
quietly. She strikes the door with a knife.

Intheseventhscene,Pierrette,whoispregnantbyherboyfriendandnot,

itisimportanttorealise,byherfatherorherbrother-in-law,isterrified
aboutherfather’sresponse,shouldhefindout.Pierretteentersintoafren-
zieddancetotrytolosethebaby.Gérald,theinnocent,entersandisso
takenupbythedancethathejoinsPierrette,grabbingherbytheneck.She
fallsdead.Inthefinalscene,theMother,ColetteandSimonearesitting
aroundthekitchentablereadingsympathycards.Thenewsfromaself-
pityingTonioinprisonisthathehascancer.Attheveryend,thethree
womenremainseatedatthetable.Simoneremembersthattheyusedto
havealotoffun.Theywonderifsomeonemightcome.TheMother
mentionsGérald,whohasbeeninstitutionalised.Simonesaysthatonce
therewasagirlwhosaiditwaspermittedtosleepwithyourfather.Colette
turnstoSimoneandasksherifsheiscrazy.Thethreewomenlaugh.The
reelbeginsquietlyandeventuallydrownsoutthelaughter.Themusic
stops.ThereisonlythepluckingofonestringastheMotherlaughsinthe
darkness.

Nosummary,ofcourse,canbegintogiveanaccuratesenseofaplay.In

itsbarestbones,theplaymaysoundlikeanunsavourysliceoflife,akindof
ruralkitchensinkdrama.Delisle,however,conceivedtheplayunnatural-
istically.WhenIinterviewedDelislein1999,sheexpressedreservations
aboutthelaterproductionsoftheplay,inMontrealandinQuebecCity.One
hadbeentoosensationalist,andtheothertoorealistic.Inaway,thetext
itselfisakindoftrapforthosewhoassumethatvernacularlanguageinevi-
tablyindicatesaworkofrealism.Thefirstproduction,inRouyn,Abitibi,
wassetinanabandonedchapel,theruinsuggestingboththesocialfailure
ofAbitibiinthe1960sandtheinjuredpsychesofthecharacters.Itwasasif
onehadenteredaderelicthouse–tothisdaythebackroadsofAbitibiare
strewnwithsuchplaces–thewoodstoverusting,adisorderofbroken
furniture,adamagedaesthetic.Delislespokeoftheactorscomingontothe
stagetoassumetheidentitiesofthecharacters.Shedidnotusetheword
identity,butrathersortilège,awordsuggestingphantom,orembodiment.
Delisleunderstoodthatarealisticproductionoftheplaywoulddistorther
meaningbyreducingandoversimplifyingthesubjectmatter.Commenta-
torsontheplayinQuebecunderstoodthisaspectofDelisle’sconception.
MartineR.Corrivault,reviewingthe1979productioninQuebecCity,iden-
tified‘anartisticformthatdoesnotdistorttherealismofthesubject,but
smashesitintoathousandpieces(orsubjects)’(Corrivault,1979).

This

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approach,whichonecouldargueistheessenceoftheatre,allowsforthe
presentationofthesubjectfromasmanyperspectivesastherearecharac-
ters.Andsotheworkdoesnotbecomeapolemicaboutascandalous
subjectwithemphasisonthecondemnationofapprehendedimmorality,
butratherananalysisofthecircumstancesinwhichaparticularphenom-
enon,inthiscaseincestuousbehaviour,occurs.Therealvillainoftheplayis
thehypocriticalCamille,whorepresentssociety’sproprietyandwhogoes
entirelyunpunishedbythatsociety.ItisimportanttonotethatDelisle
constructsthecharacterofToniosothat,despitehisincestuousdesire,he
doesnothavesexwithPierrette.Thisdisplacementofjudgementfrom
ToniotoCamilleallowsforwhatMichelleTalbotsawasDelisle’smaster-
stroke:‘incestistreatedinthefirstinstancenotasascandalousfact
deservingofscowlsandpointedfingers,butasasicknessofthefamily,a
weakness,acancerslowinshowingitseffects...’(Talbot,1979:B2).

JacquesLarue-Langlois(1979:8)underlinedtheimportanceoftheplayin
Quebectheatreasawhole,identifyingthesubjectoftheplayas‘aclassicof
thetheatredespitethefactthattheauthor’sepicinspirationhasnothingin
it of Racine’.

The approach is anti-sensationalist as Corrivault noted:

...thephysicaldesireofthefatherTonioforhisdaughterPierretteis

oneoftheelementswhichcreatesthedramaticaction,butonecould
almostfinditsecondary...totheignoranceandviolence,thetolerated
miseryinthelivesoftheothercharacters.(...)Therealsubjectofthe
playistherelationshipbetweenthedominatorandthedominated.
(Corrivault, 1979: A10)

TheappealtoStellarQuineslayinthisunpolemicalapproachofDelisle’s:
‘Theplaytreatsinacomplexmannerthesubjectofsexualabusewithinthe
family,asubjectaspertinenttoaScottishaudiencetodayasitwaswhen
Delisle wrote her tragedy’.

Reception of the Translation in Scotland

GiventhecriticalsuccessthatMurielRomanes’sproductionofTheReelof

theHangedManenjoyedinScotland,thepre-productioncontroversycan
nowbeseeninaperspectivethatnoneofusinvolvedintheproductionfelt
atthetimewhentherewassuddenlythepossibilitythattheworkmightnot
beproduced.KeithBruceinTheHeraldsummarisedwhathadhappened:‘A
schismintheperformingcompanyledtothedepartureofoneofits
founders,aplaywrightwithdrewtherightsforthecompanytoperformher
currentwork,andatheatremanagerpulledhisvenueoutoftheproposed
tour’(Bruce,2000).Itisbeyondthefocusofthispapertorehashthestoryof
theplay’s‘controversialgestation’(Bruce,2000)inScotland,exceptin
termsofthemisreadingofthetextthatthecontroversyimplies.Akindof

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politically-correctcensoriousnessraiseditsheadinthepress,andtheresult
couldwellhavebeenthesilencingofanimportanttextbasedininquiry
ratherthanpolemic.Theproblemdoesnotsomuchliewiththeobjections
ofGerdaStevenson,co-founderofthecompany,andJanetPaisley,theplay-
wrightwhowithdrewherpermissionforStellarQuinestoproduceher
work,butwiththewayinwhichtheScottishpressdistortedandreduced
theworkofaplaywrightutterlyunknowninthecountry.Theheadlines
alonetellthestory:‘Artistsquitastheatregroupstagesincestplay’(The
Scotsman,1999);‘Thisplayaboutincestismorallybankrupt.I’mappalled
byit’(ScottishDailyMail,1999)‘Theatregroupinsists“incest”playwillgo
on’(ScottishDailyExpress,1999);‘Theatrechiefexplainsbanningof“incest”
play’(ThePressandJournal,2000).Themostworryingstatementaboutthe
playwastheopinionexpressedunderthetitle‘Unnecessaryact’onthe
editorialpageoftheScottishDailyExpress(17November,1999):‘Although
wehavenotseenTheReel–ithasneverbeenperformedinEurope–weare
readytoaccepttheviewsofthoseacquaintedwithitslackofmoralperspec-
tive’.Someofthearticlestookamorebalancedviewthantheattention-
grabbingheadlineswouldindicate.DavidTayloroftheScottishArts
Council,forexample,wasquotedassaying(Harding,1999),‘Thisplay
comeswithastrongpedigree.Weacknowledgethatthesubjectscoveredby
theplayaresensitive,butbelievethattheatreintherighthandscanhelpthe
public to explore and understand difficult issues’.

Intheend,thankstoMurielRomanes’sunderstandingoftheplayand

herunnaturalisticproduction,TheReeloftheHangedManwonthrough.I
described the production in my diary for 29 March 2000:

Theproductionbeginswiththeentirecastsitting.Therearefour
benches,oneoneachsideoftheplayingarea.Thebackdropisakindof
wallofdiscardedclothes,anabstractionofabandonment.Theonly
furnitureisawoodentableandchairs.Theperformancebeginswith
theprimitiverhythmofstepdancing,whichgraduallyintensifiesin
complexity.Thisleadsintothecard-playingscene.Themusicsegues
intotheFrench‘BangBang’andthetwogirlsdanceinabackcorner.
Thestageisdarklylitthroughout...Andtheendingwasbrilliantas
Murielwentbacktothebeginning,thedancing,andtheopeningscene
withthemusictakingover,thefiddletune,themaskedfiddlerupstage.

Attheendoftheperformancethereelseemedpoisedtobeginagain,under-
scoringthecruelandsadritualthatDelislehadputatthecentreofherplay.
ThestorymayberootedinAbitibi,Quebec,inthe1950s,buttheconception
oftheactionasritualbringsapowerfuluniversality.Delisle’sapproachhad
takenvernacularlanguageintoanewterritory,asortofritualepicinthe
demotic.Itisasifoneiswitnessinganage-oldstorythatisdoomedto
endlessre-enactment.TheepigraphthatDelislechosefortheplaybest

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identifiestheexactplacewhereDelisle(2000:99)situatesthework:
‘Tragedysituatesitselfintheintermediaryandambiguousplacebetween
ritualandthespontaneousmodelthatthisritualisstrivingtoreproduce
(René Girard,La Violence et le Sacré)’.

ThecriticswhorespondedtoMurielRomanes’sproductionshowedto

whatdegreeStellarQuineshadsucceededinrefutingthepre-production
controversy.SueWilson(2000)inTheIndependentwrotethattheplay’s
‘underlyingmotivation...inseekingtounderstandthedeepestdynamics
ofsuchanappallingyetendemichumandysfunctionseemsaneminently
moralandresponsibleone’.On30April2000,undertheheading‘Theatre
TheReeloftheHangedMan,MacRobertsArtCentre,Stirling’,theanony-
mouscriticinScotlandonSundaydescribedtheplayas‘aworkwhich
demandstobeseenasmuchastheissuesitconsidersdemandtobe
discussed’whilstdescribingtheMorinfamilyas‘almostunimaginably
dysfunctional,yetstillrecognisableinoursociety’.AndinTheScotsman
JoyceMcMillan(2000)sawtheplayasdealing‘withthesubjectofincest
andabuseinthefamilynotsomuchbycondemningitasbytryingto
explainit,asaresponsetopowerlessnessandemotionalrepression’.More
lyrically,NeilCooper(2000)saidthat‘MurielRomanes’sproduction...
whirls,crashes,burnsandbleedswithablindpowerofspiritualself-lacer-
ation’.Inclaimingthattheplay‘addressessomethingintheScottish
nationalpsyche’,SteveCramerwasanothercriticwhosawtherelevanceof
theplayforaScottishaudience.Heseemedtohavehiseyeonthecontro-
versyaswellastheplaywhenhewrote,‘It’snottheincestitselfwhich
Delisle’splayisconcernedwith,thisisinnowayendorsed,butratherthe
capacityofourculturetocondemnwithoutrecoursetoanalysis’(Cramer,
2000).CramerrecognisedthecomplexityofDelisle’streatmentbysaying
thattheworkexplores‘...anemotionallandscapewhichistoofraughtwith
complexcausalitiestobringussimplesolutions,astheplay’stragic
momentumvisitsupononeandall’(Cramer,2000).Cramer’sinsight
implicitlyrecognisesthemusicalformoftheplay,asareelturningbackon
itselfinpotentiallyendlessreiteration.Thus,attheendoftheplay,thethree
survivingwomenremainparalysedwithnoalternativebuttoimaginea
visitor who will start the bitter inescapable ritual all over again.

Insomewaysthemosthearteninganddeeplyunderstandingreviewof

TheReeloftheHangedManwaswrittenbycriticJohnHaswellofTheShetland
Times.Withoutoverdrawingtheparallel,Shetland,asaScots-speaking
territorybeyondtheHighlands,isperhapstheplaceinScotlandmostlike
Abitibiandcertainlyaplacefarfromtheperceivedcenteroftheculture.The
ReeloftheHangedManwasgivenoneperformanceattheGarrisonTheatre
inLerwickon5April2000.IquoteHaswell’sreviewatlengthasitdescribes
what those of us involved with the production hoped to achieve:

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TheReeloftheHangedManstudiedthetotaldysfunctionofoneparticular
familylivingontheoutermostedgesofallformsofcivilisation.Faced
withextremepoverty,anunyieldingenvironmentandtheeffectsof
findingsolacethroughdrink,thefatherofthisfamilysoughttorein-
forcehisstatusasitsnaturalheadthroughincreasinglydesperateand
morallybankruptmeans(neglect,violence,briberyandphysicalabuse).
Thephysicalrelationshipbetweenthefatherandoneofhisdaughters
wasthemostdisturbingmanifestationofamanatwarwithhimself
andwiththeworldaroundhimanditistothegreatcreditoftheplay
thatitattemptedtoexplainratherthanuniversallycondemn.The
incestwasportrayedasacanceraffectingeveryoneinthefamilyand
the destructive nature of such abuse was strongly presented.
Thisproductionwasbothascontrolledandaswildasthefamilythatit
featuredandasemotionallyfrighteningandyetfulloflifeasthestep
dancingwhichembracedit.Itwasnotashowjustaboutincest.Itwasa
showaboutdreamsbrokenbyanall-pervadingpovertyinan
unyieldinglandscapeandanemotionalandphysicalisolation.Itwas
brave,boldandthought-provoking.ThataShetlandaudiencehadthe
opportunitytowitnesssuchapowerfulproduction...issomethingto
beapplauded.Whatashamethattherearethosewhooverreactto
possiblecontroversy.TheReeloftheHangedManwithallitsrage,itslife
and its destruction was the very stuff of theatre. (Haswell, 2000: 31)

WhatbeganasaplayinaregionaltheatreinRouyn,Abitibi,Quebecin1978
hadcrossedmorethananoceaningettingtotheGarrisonTheatrein
Lerwick,Shetland,Scotlandin2000.Itssuccessthere,however,inaregion
regardedwithinitscountryasremoteasAbitibiisinQuebec,isaconfirma-
tionnotonlyoftheimportanceofJeanne-ManceDelisle’splaybuttesti-
monytotherelevanceofvernaculartheatrebeyonditsoriginalculture.Bill
andIwereparticularlypleasedthatHaswellhadentirelyneglectedto
mentionthattheplayheattendedwasaScotstranslation.Thiscritichad
receivedtheplaydirectly,notingits‘raw,expletive-riddenlanguage’but
hearingitintheur-languageoftheuniversaltongueofthepeople.Thatwas
thedreamwithwhichBillFindlayandIbeganourcollaborationtogether
overaquarterofacenturyago.WewantedtodiscoverwhetherScots
languagecouldbethevesselforplaysfrombeyondScotland.Theimpor-
tanceofTheReeloftheHangedMantothisworkshouldnotbeunderesti-
mated.WewereluckyinMichelTremblay,buthadoursuccessbeenlimited
tohiswork,thepointweweretryingtomakewouldbelesssurelyproved.
Jeanne-ManceDelislegaveusaplaywithsuchathorough-goingvernac-
ularquality–itslanguage,itsmusic,and,aboveall,itsformsituated
betweenritualandthedemotic–thatScotland,reluctantasitwas,found
another playwright that it had never had.

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Author’s note

Pagereferenceswerenotalwaysavailableforreviewsandarticlesintheatre
archives.

Notes

1.MurielRomanes,theartisticdirectorofStellarQuines,withMaggieKinlochas

director,presentedastagedreadingofTheSkelfsattheTraverseTheatreon2
November2005,aneveningofcelebrationofthecontributiontoScottishtheatre
of Bill Findlay, who died on 15 May 2005 at the age of fifty-seven.

2.MichelleTalbot,in‘Unreelbenbeau...unréeldemaux!’(Talbot,1979:B2),

describesthisdifference.SheseesinDelisle’splayastyle‘withoutexhilarating
andlyricaltranspositionsasinTremblayandwithoutunbelievableendings...’
(thisismytranslationof:‘...sansvéritablestranspositionsexaltantesetlyriquesàla
Tremblay, sans incroyables finales’).

3.The full quotation (my own translation) is as follows:

Jeanne-ManceDelisleofAbitibi...hasauniquevoice,anaptnessaspoeticasitis
dramatic.Tremblayhascastashadowoversuchwritingandonebelievesthat
Quebectheatreisrealistic,urban,proletarian,androotedinmiserywhenin
thesetexts,sometimessuperiortohis,onefindsanobilityofcharacter,a
grandeur,anerotisationofthesoulwhichrelegatestheplaysofTremblaytoa
simplification of the world, to a substitute for tragedy.
L’AbitibienneJeanne-ManceDelisle...aunevoixunique,unejustessepoétiqueautant
quedramatique.Tremblayajetédel’ombresurcesécritures-làetl’oncroitquelethéàtre
québécoisestunthéàtreréaliste,urbain,prolétaire,misérable,quanddanscestextes
parfoissupérieursauxsiensontrouveunenoblessedecaractère,unegrandeur,une
érotisationdel’âmequirelègueladramaturgiedeTremblayàunesimplificationdu
monde, à un succédané du tragique. (Lévesque, 1999: 53)

4.A4,etc.arepagenumbersinCanadiannewspaperswhereeachsectionis

designated by letter: A4 is page 4 in Section A.

5.ReviewingTheGuidSistersintheproductionthattheTronTheatre,Glasgow,

broughttoMontreal’sCentaurTheatreinOctober1992,LévesquedescribedLes
Belles-soeursas‘thetragicomedywhichisthewellspringofmodernQuebec
theatre’(mytranslationof:‘...cettetragédiebouffequiestàlasourceduthéàtre
québécois moderne’‘D’Écosse, une grande production desBelles-soeurs’.

6.Quoted with the permission of Stellar Quines.
7.InOctober1998Iheldaone-monthtranslationresidencyfundedbythe

EuropeanCommissionArianeProgrammeattheBritishCentreforLiterary
TranslationattheUniversityofEastAnglia,Norwich.ItwasinNorwichthatI
completed the first (literal) draft of the script.

8.My translation of:

TousceuxquiontparticipéàlareprisedelapiècedeJeanne-ManceDelisle...sesontdits
àlafoisenvoûtésetprofondémenttroublés...carpeudespectateurséchapperontàla
fascinationdecetuniversclos,àladensitéoùlessentimentslesplussecretssont
nommés,lesdésirslesplusprimairessontavouésetlafamillequébécoisedémythifiée.
Avec la brutalité d’un coup de poing en pleine face. (Dassylva, 1979)

9.My translation of:

‘LapiècedeJeanne-ManceDelisle...sesitueàmillelieuxdesclichéssurlebon
colonisateurfumanttranquillementsapipeaumilieud’unenuéed’enfantsetde
mouches noires.’ (Dassylva, 1979: B4)

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10.My translation of:

LetextedeJeanne-ManceDélisle[sic]plongeaucœurdeledésillusionabitibienne,dans
lesannéescinquante,alorsquefilsetfillesdespremierscolonsseressententdes
retombées malsaines d’une idéologie de la terre promise.

11.My translation of:

Lapauvreté,l’ignorance,lepuritanismelaissententendrefortementleursvoix
discordantes.Àlamanièred’unlamento,lejeuextrêmementphysiqueettenduétireles
gestes,lesmouvementsconcentriquesetlessilences.Dansceregistreduvertige,le
violoneuxpourraitbienêtrel’actantprincipal;lejoueurdereelnefaitpasquecommenter
l’action,commelechœurdanslatragédiegrecque,ilest,danssesaccentsdéchirés,ses
hocquets[sic],sessonsbrisés,sonlyrismesauvage,uninterprèteprimaire,uneplainte
collective exacerbant la trivialité d’une humanité déchue, défaite.(David, 1979: 117)

12.My translation of:

‘Enréalité,toutelapièceestunreel,uneœuvrequitourneetretournesoustoutessesfaces
unmêmeproblème,celuidel’amourimpossibleetceluidel’artcommeanti-destin.(...)...
ilfautentendre«LeReelduPendu»àlafaçond’unerituelle,répétitive,pourconjurer
le destin’. (Bourassa, 1981: 37)

13.SeeMartineCorrivault(1979:D3),‘Latragédieenchaiseberçante:lebeaureeltriste

deJeanne-ManceDelisle’.Delisleisquotedassaying‘J’étaislittéralementfascinéepar
cettefamille-làquivivaitavecuneintensité,uneforceincroyables.Ilrégnaitdansla
maisonunetellesensualité,unetelleénergie,ilsétaientsibeauxetpleinsdesantéque
j’en étais renversée’.

14.Mytranslationof:‘...uneformeartistiquequinedénaturepasleréalismedusujet,mais

lefaitéclaterenmillesujets.’TheFrenchiscapableofapunofwhichEnglishisnot.

15.My translation of:

MaislacartemaîtressedeJeanne-ManceDeslisle[sic]estd’avoirtraitédel’inceste,non
pas,aupremierdegré,commeunfaitscandaleuxàpointerdudoigtengrimaçant,mais
comme une maladie de famille, une tare, un cancer lent à aboutir.’ (Talbot, 1979: B2)

16.Mytranslationof:‘L’auteur...s’attaqueiciàunclassiquedeladramaturgie,l’inceste.

Malgré que son souffle épique n’ait rien de proprement racinien....

17.My translation of:

...ledésirphysiquedupère,Tonio,poursafillePierrette,estundesélémentsquis’ajoute
àl’actiondramatique,maisonpourraitpresqueletrouversecondaire...d’ignoranceet
deviolence,demisèretoléréedanslaviedesêtres.(...)Levraisujetdelapièceest...les
relations dominants-dominés... .

18.Unpublished publicity material of Stellar Quines. Quoted with permission.

References

Bourassa, A.G. (1981) Le temps d’un reel.Lettres québécoises22 (Summer), 37–8.
Bowman,M.(2000)TheReeloftheHangedMan:Historicalbackground.Performance

programme.Stellar Quines.

Bowman,M.(2000)Ontheedgeofcivilization,noonecanhearyouscream.The

Scotsman, 24 March.

Bowman,M.(2003)MichelTremblayinScots:CelebrationandRehabilitation.Performing

NationalIdentities:InternationalPerspectivesonContemporaryCanadianTheatre(pp.
38–50). Vancouver: Talonbooks.

Brown,D.(1999)QuebecplaycausesScottishdrama.NationalPost,17November,

B4.

Bruce, K. (2000) Fussing and feuding over family values.The Herald, 30 March.
Cooper,N.(2000)Theatre:TheReeloftheHangedMan,TraverseTheatre,

Edinburgh.The Herald, 30 March.

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Corrivault,M.(1979a)Vraimentlatragédieenchaiseberçante.LeSoleil,23July,A10.
Corrivault,M.(1979)Latragédieenchaiseberçante:LebeaureeltristedeJeanne-

Mance Delisle.Le Soleil, 21 July, D3.

Cramer,S,(2000)QuebecoisTheatre:TheReeloftheHangedMan.TheList,13–27

April.

Dassylva,M.(1979a)D’Abitibi,unehistoirebenbelleetbentriste.LaPresse,28July,

B1.

Dassylva,M.(1979b)Desimagespourhantervosnuitsetvosveilles.LaPresse,28

July, B3.

David, G. (1979) Un reel ben beau, ben triste.Cahiers de Théâtre Jeu12, 116–7.
Delisle,J.M.(2000)TheReeloftheHangedMan(M.BowmanandB.Findlay,trans.).

Edinburgh Review, 99–143.

Fisher, M. (1992) The House Among the Stars.The Guardian, 29 October.
Harding,C.(1999)Thisplayaboutincestismorallybankrupt:I’mappalledbyit.

Scottish Daily Mail, 17 November.

Haswell,J.(2000)Powerful,boldandthought-provoking.ShetlandTimes,14April,

p. 31.

Larue-Langlois,J.(1979)Untexterichedansunthéâtred’été.LeDevoir,31July,p.8.
Levesque, R. (1992) Les Belles-soeurs.Le Devoir, 2 October, A4.
Lévesque, R. (1999) Le petit pays où Gauvreau est mort.Ici, 23–30 December.
Linklater, J. (1992) Intimate words.The Herald, 26 October.
McMillan,J.(2000)Searinglightonafamily’sdarksecret.TheScotsman,31March.
Talbot,M.(1979)Unreelbenbeau...unréeldemaux!Dimanche-matin,29July,B2.
Wilson, S. (2000) Theatre: The Reel of the Hanged Man.The Independent, 5 April.

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Chapter 3

Speaking the World: Drama in Scots
Translation

JOHN CORBETT

Introduction

InTheTranslationZone,asurveyofthefieldofcomparativeliterature,

EmilyApterdevotesachaptertothe‘NewScotologists’,IrvineWelsh,Ian
Banks,DuncanMcLeanandJamesKelman(Apter,2006:149–59).This
chapter,entitled‘TheLanguageofDamagedExperience’,linksthenon-
standardurbanargotofWelshandcompanytotheconditionsofclass
oppressionandinternalcolonialismsufferedbythemaincharactersin
novels by these writers:

[who]useaccenttosituatereadersdirectlyinthementalbasinofurban
regionalconsciousness.Typically,howthenarratorsseetheworldis
filteredthroughhowthenarratorsspeaktheworld,thatis,through
orally inflected interior monologue. (Apter, 2006: 153)

WhileacknowledgingthepowerofscatologicalurbanScotstocalibratethe
reader’sworldviewwiththoseofjunkies,schemiesanddossers,Apter
neverthelessimplicitlycondemnsthelanguagetotheroleof‘thesubaltern
carrierofcognition’ssoma’(Apter2006:150).Thischapterseekstoredress
thebalancebyexploringtheusesofScotsinEuropeanplaystranslatedover
thesecondhalfofthe20thcentury.

Ishallarguethatthecharacterisationof

Scotsas‘thelanguageofdamagedexperience’,whileundoubtedlytrueof
anestimablesectorofScottishliterature,isalsoreductivewhenthecanon
asawholeisconsidered–anditisparticularlyreductiveifappliedtothe
considerable body of European drama translated into Scots.

Crude Thinking, Crude Language?

Apterprefacesherdiscussionofthe‘NewScotologists’withcitations

fromBenjaminandAdorno,which,sincetheyformthetheoreticalbasisof
herdiscussion,areworthrevisiting.InadiscussionofTheThreepennyOpera,
Benjamin characterised ‘crude thinking’ thus:

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misedbyproverbssuchas:‘There’snosmokewithoutfire’or‘You
can’tmakeanomelettewithoutbreakingeggs’.Theselead-weight
utterancesbelongtothe‘householdofdialecticalthinking’,because
theyenableaction;indeed‘thoughtmustbecrudeinordertocomeinto
itsowninaction’.ForBenjamin,theraw,prolecommonplacetypicalof
‘crudethought’operatesastheengineofBrechtiansatire,whichpivots
ontheexpressionsthat‘laybarethefellowcitizen’peelingbacklife’s
‘legaldrapery’tothepointwhere‘humancontent...emergesnaked.’
(Apter, 2006: 150, citing Benjamin, 1973: 81)

The‘raw,prolecommonplace’isclearlyappropriatetosatiressuchas

TheThreepennyOpera,inwhichbourgeoispretensionsareburlesquedby
thelanguageandbehaviourofthelowerorders.Thisfunctionofthenon-
standardidiomisevidentinanotherofBrecht’splays,MrPuntilaandHis
Man, Matti,translated into the urban demotic by Peter Arnott:

PUNTILA:

Yewanttaekensomething?Therearefermersroonherewha’d

pochlethebreidfaetheirworkers’bairns,theywould.Wouldyecredit
it?Me?Ah’dfeedmahindsoanvenison,Ahwad,ginitwasbutprac-
tical, I mean, how come no? Wir aw Jock Tamson’s bairns, hint we?

MATTI:

Aye, sure. (STM: 273)

Thedrunken,temporaryandthereforeinsincerebonhomieofPuntilathe

landownerisunderminedbyhisclichédassertion,‘WirawJockTamson’s
bairns’(thatis,weareallpartofonecommonhumanity).Matti,the
manservant,expresseshisscepticismwithasardonic‘doublepositive’.The
exchangeischaracterisedbythekindofstockphrasesthatBenjaminidenti-
fiesasmarking‘crudethinking’andassuchitbearsoutthecommonuseof
pantomimic Scots to parody middle class pretensions.

ApterthendrawsonAdornotofurtherhercaseforScotsasthevehicleof

damaged experience:

Toplayoffworkers’dialectsagainstthewrittenlanguageisreac-
tionary.Leisure,evenprideandarrogance,havegiventhelanguageof
theupperclassesacertainindependenceandself-discipline.[...]The
languageofthesubjected,ontheotherhand,dominationalonehas
stamped,sorobbingthemfurtherofthejusticepromisedbythe
unmutilated,autonomouswordtoallthosefreeenoughtopronounce
itwithoutrancour.Proletarianlanguageisdictatedbyhunger.[...]
Beingforbiddentoloveit,theymaimthebodyoflanguage,andso
repeatinimpotentstrengththedisfigurementinflictedonthem.Even
thebestqualitiesoftheNorthBerlinorCockneydialects,theready
repartee,themotherwit,aremarredbytheneed,inordertoendure
desperatesituations,withoutdespair,tomockthemselvesalongwith

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theenemy,andsotoacknowledgethewayoftheworld.(Adorno,1974:
102; cited in Apter, 2006: 151)

Obviously,sinceAdornowrotethesewords,attitudestonon-standard
varietiesoflanguagehaveundergoneaconsiderablechange.Today,
Adorno’svividcharacterisationof‘worker’sdialects’suggestsanintern-
alisation,nomatterhowreluctant,ofsomepartofthemythologyofthe
oppressor,namelythatamongthefreedomsgrantedtotheprivilegedisthe
righttoexpress‘unmutilated,autonomouswords’.Andwhilesomechar-
acteristicsofproletarianlanguagearegivencredit(‘thereadyrepartee,the
motherwit’)eventhesearetaintedbytheirassociationwiththemockery
thatguardsagainstdespair.Itisnowimpossibletothinkoflanguage
existingdiscretelyasan‘autonomous,unmutilated’systemsomewhere
apartfromthecommunities,bourgeoisandproletarian,thatspeakand
writeit.Evenso,whileAdorno’swordsmightberedolentoftheunrecon-
structedlinguisticprejudicesofhistimes,theircontinuingforceisevident
inApter’sappropriationofthemtoportraytheworkofthe‘New
Scotologists’.Ironically,itisindramatranslationintoScotsthattheviews
epitomisedbyAdornoandrevivedbyApterfindtheirstrongestchallenge.

Reactionary or Resisting?

Adorno’sbrandingofliteratureinthe‘worker’sdialect’as‘reactionary’

isbasedonthefalseassumptionthatnon-standarddialectsareessentially
inferiortostandarddialects.Eventhedescriptionofthestandardvarietyas
adialectwillstillstrikesomeassemanticallydissonant:forsome,like
Adorno,thereisstillanoppositionbetweeninferiordialectandpure
language.However,severaldecadesofsociolinguistictheoryhavechal-
lengedthisdichotomy,arguinginsteadthatthestandardvarietyofany
languageisbasedonafunctionalwrittendialect,developedtoeasethelife
ofcivilservants,andwhoseinfluencebeginstoextendtothespokenmode
ofthebourgeoisclasses(cfCrowley,1989).So-called‘dialects’suchasBlack
EnglishVernacularorScotsservethepurposesoftheirspeechcommunities
inaseffectiveawayasthestandardvarietyservesitswritersandspeakers.
Speechcommunitiesalsochangeincharacter:Adorno’sevocationofthe
proletariatofthehungry1930sislessapplicabletotheworkingclassesof
thelate20thcentury.Evenso,attitudesareoftenslowtochange,andthe
ambivalenceoftheScotstongueisevidentinmuchScottishliterature:the
mediumandthecommunitiesitrepresentscanstillsignifyimpotenceand
damagedexperience,asApterdemonstrates,butitsrangeofsignifications
is broader than this.

Certainly,thosedramatist-translatorswhochosetowriteinScotsfrom

the1940sonwardswerenotconsciousreactionaries;theycame,likeBrecht,
fromthepoliticalleftortheysupportedthenationalistcause.Sometook

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theircuefromthepoetandcontroversialist,‘HughMacDiarmid’(Christo-
pherMurrayGreive),andcombinedsocialismandnationalism,sometimes
inidiosyncraticways(cfFindlay,1998,2004).Beforethe1940sthelackofa
professionalScottishtheatrewasanissueofsomeconcernamongstthe
Scottishintelligentsia,ascanbeseeninthefollowingexcerptfromanarticle
by Murray McClymont in the magazineModern Scot:

IknowofonlyonetheatreinScotland,theEnglishtheatre,whichhas
beenestablishedhereforovertwohundredyearsandisthetrueexpla-
nationofourdramaticpoverty.Scotlandhasnonationaldrama
becauseshehasfailedtoprovideherwriterswithanationalmedium
forthereleaseofScottishgeniusintermsofdrama.ThereisnoScottish
theatre:therearemerelyobstructionistswhodelayitscomingby
assertingitsexistencewithoutproof.(Winter,1930;reprintedin
McCulloch, 2004: 137)

Inthedecadesthatfollowed,RobertKempwasoneofthefoundersofa

revivedScottishdramatradition,andanintegralpartofthisrevivalwere
histranslationsofMolièreintoBroadScots(cf.Findlay,2003).AsIhave
arguedelsewhere(Corbett,1999,2007),translationintoScotshasbeena
consistentthreadrunningthroughScottishliteraturesincethe15thcentury.
ThesignificationsoftranslationsintoScotsarevariedandindeedfunction
asalitmustestofthepoliticalandsocialclimateofthetimesinwhichthey
appear.

The Language of the Maister

RobertKempbeganhiscareerinthesemi-professionalGateway

Theatreofthe1940s,helpingshepherditintoafullyprofessionalorgani-
sationinthe1950s.InspiredbyvisitsofFrenchtheatrecompaniesto
EdinburghintheearlyyearsoftheFestival,KemptranslatedMolière’s
L’EcoledesfemmesasLetWivesTakTentforaGatewayTheatreproductionin
February1948.ThisplaysuccessfullytransferredtotheCitizens’Theatrein
Glasgow,andhasenjoyedregularprofessionalrevivals,themostrecent
beingin2001.Kempfolloweditssuccesswithfurthertranslations,
includingL’Avare(TheLairdo’Grippy),andinspiredotherdramatist-
translators,fromVictorCarinandHectorMacMillandowntoLiz
Lochhead,tofollowinhisfootstepswithaconstantflowoftranslations,of
bothMolièreandhistheatricalkindredspirit,Goldoni.Theremarkableand
abidingsurgeofinterestin‘MacMolière’inlate20thandearly21stcentury
Scotland has been charted by Peacock (1993, 2004).

ThesuccessofMolièreandGoldoniinScotstranslationissignificantin

severalways.First,theperiodflavourtothesettingisusuallyretained,
althoughLizLochhead’sversionsofTartuffeandLeMisanthrope(asMisery

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Guts)updateMolièretoearlyandlate20thcenturyScotlandrespectively.
TheusualperiodsettingofScotsversionsofMolièreandGoldoniis18th
centuryScotland,thelastcenturyinwhichitmighttrulybesaidthatboth
masterandservantspokeBroadScots.Inthe18thcenturytherewasa
graduallanguageshiftamongsttheScotsmiddleclassesthatledtotheemer-
genceofamiddleclass‘ScottishEnglish’formofspeech(seeJones,1995).
ThisshiftisvividlydramatisedinRobertLouisStevenson’sWeirofHermiston
(1896)which,setinthe18thcentury,hasatitscorethegenerationalconflict
betweentheBroad-Scots-speakingauldlaird,basedonhangingjudgeLord
Braxfield,andhisgenteelly-spokenson,Archie.The18thcentury,then,wasa
pointwhenBroadScotsdidnotnecessarilysignify‘damagedexperience’or
‘workers’dialect’,althoughasthecenturyprogressedthebourgeoisie
progressivelybegantostigmatiseScotsas‘vulgar’,leadingintimetothe
languageattitudesdisplayedbyAdornoandBenjamin.

Fordramatist-translators,settingaplayinperiod,orevenappropriating

aperiodtextfortranslation,givesthemlicencetorecreatetheconditionsof
aScotlandinwhichBroadScotsisspokenbyallsocialclasses,from
maistersbothfoolishandwise,toservantsbothsillyandshrewd.The
periodplays,ofcourse,wereviewedbyaudiencesthroughafilterof20th
centurysensibilitiesandprejudicesaboutthelanguage,andsotheywere
cuedintoexpectationsthataScots-speakingbourgeoiswouldbeabuffoon.
In Molière, of course, this invariably proves to be the case.

Recreatingan18thcenturysetting,orevenalludingtoit,asLochhead

doesinTartuffe,alsoallowsplaywrightstoappropriatesomeoftheliterary
Scotsofthevernacularrevival,thefloweringofpoetryinthevernacular
instigatedbysuchpoetsasAllanRamsayandRobertFergusson,and
climaxingwithRobertBurns.RobertKemp’sstageScotsisablendofhisown
north-easternScotsandtheAyrshireidiomsheknewfromhisreadingof
Burns.ThisisevidentinthisexchangefromLatWivesTakTent,inwhichthe
minorLaird,Oliphant,istellinghisfriendGilchristofhisplanstomarrya
girlhehasrearedfromchildhoodinconditionsofinnocenceandsimplicity:

GILCHRIST:

This dings aa!

OLIPHANT:

You’llbespieran,‘Whythisuncolangstory?’Myfriend,it’s

toletyouunderstandtheprecautionsI’vetaen,andtheendoitisthatI
inviteyoutosupwiherthisverynicht,asyouaremytrustyfiere.Iwad
likeyoutotakalookather,MaisterGilchrist,andseeifI’mtobe
blamed for my choice. (STM: 7)

Kemp’sScotswasinfluencedbythe‘Lallans’movementinpoetryinthe

earlierhalfofthecentury,amovementthatsanctionedtheappropriationof
Scottishtermsfromdifferentplacesandtimestorecreatethefullrangeof
registersofanationallanguage.Herethespelling‘aa’(ratherthan,‘aw’)

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suggestsarural,north-easternScotspronunciation,whilethearchaic‘my
trustyfiere’isastraightliftfromAyrshiremanBurns’‘AuldLangSyne’.
However,Kempfeltthatthedemandsofwritinga‘Classical’Scotsthat
wouldbecomprehensibletoamodernaudiencedemandedthathe
moderatethedensityofhisstagemedium,andtheblendofcontemporary
speech,BurnsianliteraryScots,andEnglishwasbothpopularandinfluen-
tial.AsimilarblendisevidentintheScotstranslationsofKemp’sprotégé,
VictorCarin,who,likeKemp,grewupinthenorth-eastofScotland.In
Carin’s1965versionofGoldoni,itisaprosperousmerchant,Pittendree,
nowresidentinEdinburgh,whospeakswithaScotsthathasstrongnorth-
easterninflections,especiallyinthe‘aa’pronunciationagain,andinthe
presence of regional words like ‘loon’ (young man):

PITTENDREE:

There’syoungchielstae,mindye,theparty’snaaaauld

deilslikmasel.AmaungieyeararejokeaboutJockie’s.Aenicht,
TammyColliean’hissecondauldestson,Robert,amuckleloonnoa
yearabunesaxteen,hadafechtoweraneoJockie’smaids.Butshewas
speirtforaaready,saetheyfochtinvain.Weel,theybaithgotthatfu’,
an’Jockiehadthembedded,an’,guidsakes,theywaukenedupwi’sair
heidsan’badtempers,forJockiehadpittenthambaithi’thesamebed,
an’ a muckle soo pig atween them.(He laughs.)

SARAH:

Sae ye hae merry times in Embro? (STM: 181–182)

AstranslationsofMolièretumbledfromthepenofScottishdramatists,

thespokenidiomonwhichthestageScotsisbasedchangedfromruralto
urban.ThischangeisevidentinHectorMacMillan’sversionofThe
Hypochondriak(1987).MacMillangrewup,notinruralAberdeenshire,but
intheEastEndofGlasgow,andhisoriginalplays,TheSashandTheRising,
exploresectarianismandpoliticsinthatcity.TheScotsofMacMillan’s
Molièreadaptationsisnowmuchclosertothe‘worker’sdialect’ofAdorno,
buttheconventionsoftranslationallowittobeputintothemouthof
merchants like Argan, the hypochondriac, and lawyers like Bonnefoy:

BONNEFOY:

Yirguid-ladydidootlineyirintentions,sir,andtheprovision

ye’dmakforher.Ah’mheretaeadviseye,sir,thatthere’sabsolutely
naethin ye can lea her in onie wull.

ARGAN:

Naethin! Hoo can that be?

BONNEFOY:

BecauseowhitwecryCustomaryLaw.Ginwewereina

districtthatoperatitStatutoryLaw,‘twadbeadifferentstory;buthere
in the city, under Customary Law, it’s just no possible.

ARGAN:

Ah cannae mak a wull for ma wife? (STM: 231)

AnotherGlasgowdramatistandtranslator,LizLochhead,recuperates

Kemp’seclecticapproachtohisstageScots,butagain,likeMacMillan,from

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anurbanratherthanaruralbase.InherintroductiontoTartuffe(1985),she
delights in the polyphonicity of her stage idiom:

Actually,it’satotallyinventedand,Ihope,theatricalScots,fullof
anachronisms,demoticspeechformvariouserasandareas;it’sprover-
bial,slangy,couthy,clichéd,catch-phraseyandvulgar;it’sbasedon
Byron,Burns,StanleyHolloway,OgdenNashandGeorgeFormby,as
wellasonthesharptongueofmygranny;it’sdeliberatelyvariedin
register–mostofthecharacters,exceptDorinne,areatleastbi-lingual
and consequently more or less ‘two-faced’. (LL: introduction)

YetitistoBurnsianScotsthatLochheadspecificallyappealsinordertoset
thetoneforherportrayalofreligioushypocrisy.WhenTartuffeisatprayer,
hislanguageshiftslargelytowardstheEnglishoftheKingJamesAuthor-
isedVersion,yettherhymesandrhythmechoaparadigmofScottishreli-
gioushumbug,asportrayedinBurns’‘HolyWillie’sPrayer’,apoemwhose
cadencesarefamiliarfromthecountlessBurnsSuppersheldathomeand
abroad around the 25th January every year:

TARTUFFE:

May merciful heaven grant to thee and thine,

Health, wealth and grace baith temporal and divine.
God’s humblest servant, ask, and ask in all sincerity,
May he crown you all your days wi’ bountiful prosperity. (LL: III: iii)

IftheuseofvariousgradationsofBroadScotstoportraythelanguageof

thepowerfulindramatranslationsactsasacounter-exampletoitsuseto
signify‘damagedproletarianexperience,’asAptercontends,yetitmightstill
bearguedthatsuch‘crudelanguage’servesthesatiricalendsthatBenjamin
describes.MolièreandGoldonisatirisehumanfoibles,anditcancertainlybe
statedthat,fortoday’saudiences,theuseofBroadScotsinthemouthsof
lairds,merchants,lawyersandministersofthechurchisalinguisticmeansof
‘layingbare’theircommonhumanitytothepointwhere‘humancontent...
emergesnaked’(seeabove;Apter,2006:150,citingBenjamin,1983:81).In
otherwords,nomatterwhatsociolinguistsassertabouttheequalvalidityof
allkindsoflanguagevarieties,playwrightsandaudiencescommunicatevia
popularmythsandprejudicesaboutwhichformsoflanguageareaffectedor
natural,pureorinferior.Bydependingonthesemythsfortheirdramatic
effects,authorsandaudiencessustainandreinforcethem.

The Hybridity of Speech and Writing

InherdiscussionofAdorno,Apterfocusesonpartofhisargumentthat

she finds ‘really strange’:

Ifthewrittenlanguagecodifiestheestrangementofclasses[due
EntfremdungderKlassen],redresscannotlieinregressiontothespoken,

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butonlyintheconsistentexerciseofstrictestlinguisticobjectivity.
Onlyaspeakingthattranscendswritingbyabsorbingit,candeliver
humanspeechfromtheliethatitisalreadyhuman.(Apter,2006:151,
citing Adorno, 1974: 102)

Apter comments on this passage:

ThoughononelevelAdornoseemstobefingeringworking-class
dialectasaresourceofressentimentcapableofturningagainstthe
masterfromwithinhisownhouse,onanotherlevelheseemsbenton
militatinginfavorofthe‘literarification’ofallhumanspeech,such
that,purgedofbarbarism,itrealiseshistoricalobjectivity,andthus
feedsitselfnolongeronthejunkfoodofinfelicitousgrammar.(Apter,
2006)

AptergoesontolinkthispassageagaintoBenjamin,seeingAdorno’s

callforthe‘deliveranceofhumanspeechfromtheliethatitisalready
human’asanalogoustoBenjamin’sassertionthat‘crudelanguage’shows
humanityinitsnakedrawness.Fromthisstandpoint,Apterembarkson
heranalysisofthesignificationofnon-standardspeechinthefictionof
Welsh, Kelman and McLean):

Welsh’sScottishvernacularisnotsomuchatranspositionofaccent
andslang,butasubculturalSprachethathastheeffectofwounding
StandardEnglishwiththeslingsandarrowsofwarpedspeech,atleast
foraBritorAnglophonereaderoutsideofScotland.Thoughsome
criticsmayarguethatthiswarpingeffectissimplyamatterof‘eye
dialect’–theuseofnon-standardspellingtoidentifycolloquial
pronunciation–IwouldventurethatWelsh’sorthographycontainsa
multigrainedpoliticalaesthetic,apostcolonialpoliticsofclass.(Apter,
2006: 155–6)

Again,myanxietyaboutthisreadingisnotthatitisnecessarilyuntrue

withrespecttotheauthorsthatApterdiscusses,butthatitisunduly
constrictivewhentheuseofScotsinliteratureisconsideredmoregener-
ally;moreover,itraisesissuesthatitneglectstoresolve.Adornorightly
distinguishesbetweenspeechandwriting–twomodesofdiscoursethat
haveseparateconventionsandwhoseinfluenceoneonanotheriscontinu-
ouslynegotiated.Wheninthe18thcentury,middle-classScotsadoptedthe
normsofEnglishintheirspeech,theyappealedtothegrammarandvocab-
ularyofthewrittenstandard,normsincreasinglyregulatedanddissemi-
natedbymasseducation.Fictionandpoetrythatadopt‘eye-dialect’move
thependulumbacktowardsthenormsofspeech,seekingtorecreatein
writingtheconditionsofthespokenword.Those20thcenturypoliticaland
linguisticnationalistswhowishedtocreatein‘Lallans’anationallanguage

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foramodernScotlandwereasscathingaboutregionalinfelicitiesasAdorno
isabout‘mutilated’or‘maimed’language,andsoughtto‘purgeitofbarba-
rism’byforgingaliterarymedium(cfMilton,1995/6).Theassertiveliterari-
nessofLallansisseenintheopeningverseofSydneyGoodsirSmith’s
‘EpistletoJohnGuthrie’,whohadcomplainedthatLallanswasartificial:

We’ve come intil a gey queer time
Wham scrievin Scots is near a crime,
‘There’s no one speaks like that’, they fleer,
– But wha the deil spoke like King Lear?

Aswehaveseen,dramatistsbentonextendingBroadScotsintothe

literarydomain,thatis,devising‘aspeakingthattranscendswritingby
absorbingit’,faceapeculiarchallenge.FromKemptoLochhead,the
dramatisttranslators’strategywastofoundtheirstagemediumoncollo-
quialspeech,whetherruralorurban,andthenenrichitfromliterary
sources(Burnsandthevernacularrevivalists)orfrommoregeneral
popularculture(Lochhead’sGeorgeFormbytoOgdenNash,referredto
above).ThewrittenScotsofthevernacularrevivalistsitselfowedmuchto
theoraltraditionofballadandsong,andthereforedoesnotrepresenta
dramaticmovefromspeechtowriting.Neitherdoestheappropriationof
thelanguageofpopularpoetsandperformerssuchasNashandFormby.
Forthisreason,‘HughMacDiarmid’preferredthe16thcenturypoet,or
‘makar’,WilliamDunbartoRobertBurnsasamodelfornewwritingin
Scots–Dunbarcommandedarangeofwrittenstyles,fromcourtlycelebra-
tiontorusticsatire,thatseemedtoowelittledebttowhatweknowofthe
speechofhistime.‘MacDiarmid’wishedtodemonstratethatawritten
Broad Scots was viable.

Ascholar,politicalactivist,poetanddramatisttranslatorwhoowed

muchtotheinspirationof‘HughMacDiarmid’wasDouglasYoung,aClas-
sicsprofessoratStAndrewsUniversity.Youngtranslatedtwoplaysby
Aristophanesinthelate1950sandearly1960s,ThePuddocks(TheFrogs)
andTheBurdies.YoungwasasunapologeticasGoodsirSmithaboutthe
alleged‘artificiality’oftheBroadScotsheusedinhispoetry(cf.Young,
1946);however,hedidmakeconcessionswhenitcametopresentinghis
Scots on stage, as he notes in his own introduction toThe Burdies:

Thisprintedversionisdesignedprimarilyforthosereadingatleisure
andhasbeenequippedwithaglossaryfortheconvenienceofEnglish
andAmericanandotherreadersnotwhollyfamiliarwiththeScots
language.Itis,atthiswriting,notknownhowfartheproducerswillcut
theplayoralterthephrasingofthistext.Somecuttingandsomealter-
ationtherecertainlyshouldbeforthemosteffectiveproductionbefore
a modern general audience. (STM: 50)

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Evenso,Young’sScotsismoreexperimentalthanthatofthe

‘MacMolières’andtheirilk:bothhigh-bornandlow-borncharacters
disputeinadenseBroadScotsthatisclearlyassertingitselfasarich,
‘unmaimed’,‘unmutilated’mediumofdramaticdiscourse.Thehero,Sir
WylieBodie(Peisthetairos),isnotthespectacularlyflawedScots-speaking
bourgeoiswhosepretensionsandconceitswillbestrippedbare;insteadhe
isacraftynegotiatorwhoseskillswillberewardedbymarriagetothe
goddess,Basileia.AflavourofYoung’s‘literate’Scotscanbeseeninthe
followingexchangebetweenPeisthetairosandaHeraldfromthekingdom
of the birds:

HER:

Sir Wylie Bodie, happiest and wycest,

and famousest, and ... wycest, and ... maist sleekit ...
thrice happy ... och, help me oot, sir!

PE:

What’s this?

HER:

Withis here gowden croun, first prize for wisdom

Ye’re crounit and honourit by the United Nations.

PE:

(Takanthecroun)Bethankit.WhydaetheNationshonourmesae?

HER:

O, you that foondit the famed etherial city,

ye kenna hou muckle honour ye win frae mortals,
hou monie lovers are grienan for this country.
For afore ye ever grundit this city here,
the hale o mankind was daft on Spartan fashions.
Lang-haired and hungert, clorty, juist like Socrates,
they cairried crummocks. Nou they hae turned aboot;
they’re burdie-daft. And wi the pleisur o’t
they imitate us burds in aa they dae. (STM: 109)

Apter’s(2006)analysisofScotsasa‘subculturalSprachethathasthe

effectofwoundingStandardEnglishwiththeslingsandarrowsofwarped
speech’clearlyhastobemodifiedinthelightofthiskindofBroadScots.In
Adorno’sterms,Young’sstageLallansisnon-standardspeecharguably
purgedofbarbarismbythefireofliterariness.Ideologically,thisstage
mediumisconditionedbynationalistaspirationsratherthanclasswarfare.
ItneitherwoundsnorfeedsonStandardEnglishbutseekstofunctionasa
fullalternativetoit,anationalSpracheonitsownterms.Lessimmediately
accessible–andconsequentlylesssuccessfulasavehicleforBroadScotson
thestage,ratherthanthepage–Young’sexperimentsofthe1950sand1960s
mighthaveremainedadeadendintheuseofliteraryScotsintranslation
wereitnotfortheinterventionofanothergreatexperimentalist,Edwin
Morgan.

BetterknownasapoetandtranslatorintoEnglishandScots,Morgan

turnedtostageadaptationsinthe1990s,duringaperiodwhenScotland,

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WalesandNorthernIrelandwerepressuringsuccessfullyforincreased
politicalautonomy,resultingintheestablishmentofdevolvedassemblies,
and,inScotland,anewParliamentin1997.Itissurelymorethanacoinci-
dencethatinthisclimateofrenewednationalself-assertioncametwo
translations,ofRostandandRacine,thatagainextendedthepossibilities
forusingScotsonthestage.Morgan’sversionofCyranodeBergerac(1992)
neverthelesscanstillbefittedintoapostcolonialparadigm:Cyrano,the
GasconoutsiderfallsinlovewithRoxanne,theParisianrepresentativeof
thecentre;heisashamedofhisphysicalappearanceandsowoosherwith
theexcessivelanguageshedesiresthroughanintermediary,Christian,who
diesinbattle.Hethenconcealshisloveforheruntilhetooisattackedand
dies,butnotbeforerevealinghispassiontoherdirectly.Theplot,withits
themesoftheoutsider’sself-loathing,erasureandexploitation(thestate
exploitshiscourageandprowessinbattle;Christianusurpshisskillsto
wooRoxanne;Roxanneexploitshimeroticallyifunknowingly)accords
neatlywiththetropesofpostcolonialcriticism.YetMorganinhisintroduc-
tiontotheplayidentifiesitslanguageasbasedspecificallyuponGlaswe-
gian,andthetextitselfconfirmsthatMorgan’s‘Glaswegian’,likeYoung’s
‘Lallans’,isextendedbeyondtheconstraintsoftranscribedspeechintothe
domainoftheliterary.Afterall,noGlaswegianchefeverspokelike
Morgan’s Ragueneau:

RAGUENEAU:

Leave me, ma Muse, in case yer charming eyes

Should go all bloodshot in thae pungent fires!
– Ye’ve made a balls a the crack in thae roon cobs:
Caesura, hauf-wey, hemistichs equal, bob’s
Yer uncle. – You, pit a roof on this crust-castle…
– And you, at that endless spit, a touch a class’ll
Alternate cheapo chicks and burstin bubblyjocks,
Just as, my son, auld Malherbe amazed folks
Wae alternatin lang and shoart verse-lines.
Turn yer roast stanzas in sic skeely designs! (EM1: 39–40)

YetifCyranoisahero,whoseheroishe?Doesherepresentmarginalised
ScotlandinthefaceofEnglishimperialismor,morelikely,marginalised
Glasgowinthefaceofare-empoweredScottishstate?Therelationship
betweenregionalandnationalliteraturehasoftenbeenblurredinpost-
UnionScotland,andthereisanambivalencehere,furthercomplicatedby
Morgan’ssubsequentelevationfromofficial‘PoetofGlasgow’to‘Scot-
land’sMakar’.Still,ifwereadCyranodeBergeracasaspecificallyGlaswe-
gianplay,thenthepoliticsofclassthatApterdiscussesre-enterthefray,and
wearegivenafurtheroptionfor‘purgingthebarbarism’ofperhapsScot-
land’smostderidedpatoisbycelebratingitspotentialforliteraryexpres-
sion, from flyting to lyricism.

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PerhapsamoreaudaciousexperimentthanCyranodeBergerac,Morgan’s

versionofRacine’sPhèdre(Phaedra)adoptsa‘literary’versionofthe
languageofWelsh’sTrainspottingasavehicleforaBroadScotsversionof
thecanonicalFrenchretellingofaclassicaltragedy.Thetitularcharacter,
Phaedra,isagainanoutsider,buthertragedyistriggerednotbytheexploi-
tationofthestateoritsrepresentatives,butbyheruncontrollableyet
forbidden passion:

PHAEDRA:

Ah wahnt nae truck wi bein a king’s mither!

It’s no the thing! Mak me a spectacle?
Is thon the wey ye’re goanny ease ma hert?
Raither hide me! Ah’m a spectacle awready.
Ma radge imaginins huv skailed the cloaset.
Ah’ve sayed things naebdy hiz the richt tae say. (EM2: 39)

AsIargueelsewhere(Corbett,2006),alongwithLizLochhead’sversionsof
Medea(2000)andThebans(2004),Phaedramarksapost-devolutionary
returntoneo-classicaldramainScots,andresistsasimplepostcolonial
reading.Intheserecenttranslations,modernurbanScotlandtakescentre
stageanddramatisesitstroublesandtragediesinlanguagethathasits
rootsin‘workers’dialect’butisneithercrudenorparasiticalonsome
‘objective’ standard.

Conclusions

Thischapterhasrevolvedaroundshiftingperceptionsofnon-standard

languageasaliterarymedium,andinparticularasavehicleforthetransla-
tionoftheclassicrepertoireofEuropeandrama.Therearemanyotherplays
thatcouldhavebeenmentionedevenamongstthisgroup(alistisgivenin
Corbett&Findlay2005:331–5).Theexampleschosenaresufficienttoques-
tiontheusemadebyApterofBenjaminandAdorno,bysuggestingthatan
uncriticalacceptanceofnon-standardvarietiesasmutilateddialects,at
onceparasiticuponandoffensivetothestandard,servespost-colonial
readingsofsomemodernScottishfiction,butisnotequallyapplicableto
other literary genres.

Thereareofcoursefundamentaldifferencesbetweenfictionanddrama.

PartofthelegitimatethrillofthefictionthatApterdiscussesisallowingits
languagetocalibratethemind-styleofasocialoutsiderwithyourown:as
longasthespellofreadingendures,youinhabittheskinofajunkie,dosser
orothersocialoutsider.Atworstthereadertakesontheroleofvoyeur,
temporarilyinthralltosomeoneelse’saddictions,fantasies,pleasuresand
miseries,beforesettingthebookdownandreturningtohisorher
normality.Atbest,thereadertakesacriticalstance,transmutingvicarious
experience into political evaluation and even, perhaps, social action.

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Dramaofcourselackstheintimacyofthiskindoffiction;theaudience

alwaysobservesratherthaninhabitsthecharactersondisplay.Andyetthe
languageusedindramacantriggerpowerfulfeelingsofidentification,as
NeilGunnobservedin1938,whenhetoocontemplatedtheapparently
recedingmirageofaScottishnationaltheatre,andcontrastedthesituation
at home with that in Ireland:

InDublin,Irishnationallifewassostrongthatitcreatedadramaoutof
itself.Ithadnottoappealtopatronsbypromisingforeignplaysand
balletandopera.Itdidnotsay:Endowussothatwemaygiveyou
artisticsatisfactions.Itsaid:Wewillshowyouyourownlifetranslated
intodrama,andmakeyousitup,andlookatit,andrealiseitasyou
haveneverdonebefore.[…]IhaveseenmostofthegreatAbbeyplaysin
theAbbey,andremembervividlystilltheshockIgotwhen,atmyfirst
visitmanyyearsago,IheardtheIrishvoicesintheShadowofaGunman
comingoverthefootlightsintothedarkenedauditorium.Ihad
forgotten,ifIhadeverknown,thatcontemporarydramacouldacton
one like this. (Gunn, 1938; reprinted in McCulloch, 2004: 145–6)

Havingyourownlanguagemirroredtoyoubyactorsonstagecanlead

toaprofoundrelationshipofidentity;evenif,asinthecaseofGunn,itisnot
‘your’languagethatisactuallybeingpresented.Non-standardaccentsand
dialectsonstageinvitecommunalidentificationandownership,while
fictionmightofferthereadera‘subculturalSprache’,forleisurelycontem-
plation and analytical dissection.

Inhisessay,GunngoesontoquestionwhetherScotlandinthelate1930s

canprovidethestuffofanationaldrama,aquestionthatwasproposed
anewastheNationalTheatreofScotlandfinallylauncheditsinaugural
programmein2006.However,thepast70yearsofprofessionaltheatrein
Scotlandhaveshownthatanexcitingnationaldramaispossible,and,
sittingproudlyalongsideindigenousplaysofEuropeanreputation,are
European plays rendered into a vibrant Broad Scots.

Notes

1.Thechapterisinfluencedgreatlybytheexperienceofco-editingtheanthology

ServingTwaMaisters:FiveClassicPlaysinScotsTranslation(Glasgow:Association
forScottishLiteraryStudies,2005)withthelateBillFindlay,thescholar,
translatoranddramatisttowhomthepresentvolumeisdedicated.Fromthis
anthologyaretakenquotationsfromRobertKemp’sversionofLatWivesTakTent
(Molière),DouglasYoung’sversionofTheBurdies(Aristophanes),VictorCarin’s
versionofTheServanto’TwaMaisters(Goldoni),HectorMacMillan’sversionof
TheHypochondriak(Molière)andPeterArnott’sversionofMrPuntilaandhis
Man,Matti(Brecht).ExtractsfromtheseplaysarereferencedasSTMwiththe
pagenumber.OtherplayexcerptsarefromLizLochhead’sTartuffe:ATranslation
intoScotsfromtheOriginalbyMolière(Glasgow:ThirdEyeCentre/Polygon,
1985),referencedasLLplusactandscenenumbers;andEdwinMorgan’s

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translationsofEmondRostand’sCyranodeBergerac(Manchester:Carcanet,
1992),referencedasEM1pluspagenumber;andfromJeanRacine’sPhaedra
(Manchester: Carcanet, 200), referenced as EM2 plus page number.

2.Findlay’s translation, see Note 1 above.
3.Liz Lochhead’s translation, see Note 1.
4.Edwin Morgan’s translation, see Note 1.
5.Edwin Morgan’s translation, see Note 1.

References

Adorno, T.(1974)Minima Moralia(E.F.N. Jephcott, trans.). London: Verso.
Apter,E.(2006)TheTranslationZone:ANewComparativeLiterature.Princeton:

Princeton University Press.

Benjamin,W.(1973)UnderstandingBrecht[VersucheüberBrecht](A.Bostock,trans.).

London: New Left Books.

Corbett,J.(1999)WrittenintheLanguageoftheScottishNation:AHistoryofLiterary

Translation into Scots. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Corbett,J.(2006)Naemairpussyfootin:Ah’maff,Theramenes:Demotic

neoclassicaldramaincontemporaryScotland.InJ.McGonigalandK.Stirling
(eds)EthicallySpeaking:VoiceandValuesinModernScottishWriting(pp.1–20).
Amsterdam: Rodopi.

Corbett,J.(2007)Adoublerealm:Scottishliterarytranslationinthe21stCentury.In

B.Schoene(ed.)TheEdinburghCompanionto21stCenturyScottishLiterature(pp.
336–344). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Corbett,J.andB.Findlay(eds)(2005)ServingTwaMaisters:FiveClassicPlaysinScots

Translation.Glasgow: Association for Scottish Literary Studies.

Crowley,T.(1989)ThePoliticsofDiscourse:TheStandardLanguageQuestioninBritish

Cultural Debates. London: Macmillan.

Findlay, B. (ed.) (1998)AHistory of Scottish Theatre. Edinburgh: Polygon.
Findlay,B.(2003)Thefoundingofamoderntradition:RobertKemp’sScots

translationsofMolièreattheGateway.InI.Brown(ed.)Journey’sBeginning:The
Gateway Theatre Building and Company, 1884–1965.Bristol: Intellect.

Findlay,B.(ed.)(2004)FraeItherTongues:EssaysonModernTranslationsintoScots.

Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Jones,C.(1995)ALanguageSuppressed:ThePronunciationoftheScotsLanguageinthe

18th Century. Edinburgh: John Donald.

McCulloch,M.P.(2004)ModernismandNationalism:LiteratureandSocietyinScotland

1918–1939. Glasgow: Association for Scottish Literary Studies.

Milton,C.(1995/6)ShibbolethsotheScots:HughMacDiarmidandJamieson’s

EtymologicalDictionaryoftheScottishLanguage.ScottishLanguage14/15,1–14.

Peacock,N.(1993)MolièreinScotland:1945–1990.Glasgow:UniversityofGlasgow

French and German Publications.

Peacock,N.(2004)RobertKemp’stranslationsofMolière.InB.Findlay(ed.)Frae

ItherTongues:EssaysonModernTranslationsintoScots(pp.87–105).Clevedon:
Multilingual Matters.

Young,D.(1946)‘PlasticScots’andtheScottishLiteraryTradition.Glasgow:William

McLellan.

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Chapter 4

Staging Italian Theatre: A Resistant
Approach

STEFANIA TAVIANO

Introduction

AnanalysisofkeyBritishproductionsofmodernItaliantheatretestifies

totheculturalandlinguistictransformationsaffectingforeignplayswhen
theyaretranslatedfromonelanguageintoanother;italsoillustratesthe
peculiaritiesoftheatretranslationintoEnglish.Whileacculturationisan
inherentaspectofthetranslationoftheatretexts,therearespecificwaysin
whichforeignplaysareappropriatedbyBritishtheatrecompanies,dueto
cultural and theatrical constraints peculiar to this society.

Thischapterlooksatcontemporarystrategiesadoptedinstagingforeign

playsintheUKbytakingintoaccounttheroleoftheatreaudiencesandthe
functionoftheatreinaffectinganddeterminingsocialpractices.After
brieflyanalysingapredominantBritishapproachtoforeigntheatre,a
numberofrecentproductionsofItalianplays,whichseemtoindicatea
tendencytowardsanalternativestrategyinstagingsofforeigntheatreinthe
UK,areexamined.Theseincludethe2002jointproductionofTheOdysseyby
theItaliantheatregroupStalkerTeatroandtheGlasgow-basedWorking
Party,togetherwithsomekeyproductionsofplaysbyLuigiPirandello,
EdoardoDeFilippo,DarioFoandFrancaRame.Theseproductionshave
beenchosenfortheirpoliticalcontent,insomecases,butmainlyfortheir
provocativeformandfunctioninthattheychallengecommonBritishstage
traditions,suchasthetendencytofocusontheculturalidentityofforeign
plays,aswellasdominantactingstyles.Theuseofnon-standardlanguages
andthecommitmentoftheatrecollectivestophysicalactingwillbeshown
toconstitutecentralelementsofaresistantapproachthatdistinguishes
itself for its challenging interpretations of foreign theatre.

MostBritishproductionsofFoandRame’splays,reveal,todifferent

degrees,themainaspectsofapredominantapproachtopoliticaltheatre
whichaimsatappropriatingforeignplaysbyfocusingontheirentertain-
mentvalueandtheirculturalidentitywhileunderminingtheirpolitical
function.Thesuccessofthe2003WestEndstagingofAccidentalDeathofan
AnarchistattheDonmarWarehouseTheatre,forexample,wasachieved

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thankstoaspecificstrategy,includingthechoiceofthewell-knownSimon
Nye,bothastheauthoroftheplay’snewtranslationandastheactor
playingthepartoftheprotagonist.Nye’sexcellentperformanceoffarcical
sketchesandstereotypicalfigures,whichwerenotincludedintheoriginal
text,madeBritishaudienceslaughbut,atthesametime,forgetthepolitical
messageoftheplay,aimedatrevealingpolicebrutalityandcorruption.
Thisstaging,togetherwithmanyothers,indicatesthetendencytoacomic
readingofItaliantheatre,whichistheresultofacompromisebetweenthe
politicalfunctionofthesourcetextanditsassimilationintotheBritish
theatricalsystem,aimedatensuringthesuccessofstageproductions.In
otherwords,FoandRamehavebeen,andcontinuetobe,thebestknown
andmostperformedItalianplaywrightsintheUKthankstothecommer-
cialisationoftheirplays,whichmakesthemeasytostageandaboveall
funny, hilarious Italian satire (see Taviano, 2005).

Nevertheless,itisimportanttoacknowledgethatadifferentapproachto

foreigntheatreisnowstartingtoemergefromanumberofproductions.I
havedefinedsuchanapproachresistant,accordingtoanotionofpostmodern
performance,which,ratherthantransgressingthelimitsimposedbysociety,
isresistantwithinthedominantculture.Inotherwords,postmodernistartists
andtheirartcannotbeseparatedfromthecontextinwhichtheybelong,but
atthesametimetheycansubvertpredominantformsofrepresentation.This
definitionofaresistantapproachisbasedonPhilipAuslander’s(1992)view
oftransgressiveandresistantpoliticsappliedtopostmodernAmerican
performance.Similarly,aresistantapproachtoforeignplaywrightssubverts
strategiescentredonthe‘exotic’natureofforeignplaysbyfocusinginstead
ontheirpoliticalroleinstimulatingandprovokingtheatreaudiences.The
opportunityforBritishaudiencesto(re)discoverforeigntheatremightreside
preciselyinresistantstagings,asinthecaseofthe2002jointproductionofThe
Odyssey.ThiswasaprojectfundedbytheScottishArtsCouncil,and,despite
thefactthattheplaywasstagedinatraditionaltheatre,challengedtradi-
tionalnotionsofperformancethroughanactiveinvolvementofthelocal
communityandtheaudiencebyextendingitsimpactbeyondtheperfor-
manceitselfthroughworkshops,aswellasproposinginnovativewaysto
usetheTramwaytheatreasaperformativespace.

TheOdysseywaspartofamonth-longseasonoftheatreandliterary

eventsinGlasgowbetweenOctoberandNovember2002.Theshowwas
described in the programme as follows:

Turin’sStalkerTeatrofusesa25-yearhistoryofsitespecificperfor-
manceandvisualartstore-createthisthrillingepicinGlasgow.Inthis
UKpremiere,co-producedbyTheWorkingParty,Stalkercollaborates
withinstallationartistsandparticipantsfromcommunitiesthroughout
GlasgowtobringthepoetryofTheOdysseyaliveinEnglishandItalian.

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Audienceswereinvitedto‘entertheWorldoftheHero’,‘tobecomethe

Hero’and‘toembarkonHomer’sclassicvoyageofdiscovery.’Thiswasa
trulyinteractiveperformance;asaudiencememberswhenenteringthe
theatreweremetaphoricallyandliterallytakenthroughOdysseus’s
voyage.Anactorwithablanketcoveringhis/hershoulderswould
welcomeus,giveusabagfullofstonesandshowthewaytoourseatsby
takingusthroughadarkpathwithatorchandrecitinglinesfromThe
Odyssey, with the sound of the sea in the background.

Theprogrammeprovidedajourneyguidewiththebreakdownofthe

eight scenes as follows:

Scene1,Telemachus;Scene2,AttheCourtofAlcinous;Scene3,Journey
acrosstheSeas;Scene4,TheLandoftheLotusEaters;Scene5,Onthe
EnchantedIslandofCirce;Scene6,Hades;Scene7,Homecomingand
Slaughter;Scene 8, Banquet of Reconciliation.

Eachscenetookplaceinadifferentareaofthetheatreandrepresenteda
differentstageinthevoyageofOdysseusandtheaudience.TheLotus
EatersScene,forexample,consistedofadisplayoflocalartists’sinterpreta-
tionofHomer’svoyageandoftheLotusEaterschapterinJamesJoyce’s
Ulysses.Thesceneincluded:theartistVrndaDaktorsittinginfrontofa
mirrorwhiledrawingherselfsurroundedbydiscardeddrawingsto
symbolisetheartistinsearchoftruthandinspiration;acyclicalaction
performedbyMichellaDunneandGillianLeesworkingwithlargeblocks
oflardandfruit,materialsresonantoftheLotusEaters’experience(inthe
artists’view)since,whentheyareexposedtotimeandhumancontact,their
stateisaltered.Theaudiencewasinvitedtotakeanactiverolebydeciding
theorderinwhichtoobserveeachpieceandtheamountoftimespent
watchingeachofthem.Spectatorswerealsoabletointeractwiththe
soundscapeofthescenethroughtwosoundbeamsthatwerepartofThe
DreamoftheSea,amulti-trackedmusicalpiece.Throughouttheperfor-
mancetwonarrators,onespeakinginEnglishandtheotherinItalian,
markedcrucialpointsinthedevelopmentofthestory,contributingtothe
rhythmoftheperformance.Thenatureoftheperformanceledtoaninter-
estinguseoftheTramwayTheatre,takingadvantageofbackstagespaces
andcorridorsneverusedforperformances,andaboveallitencouragedthe
audiencetotakeanactiverolethroughouttheevening.Intheconcluding
scene,thatofthereconciliationbanquet,audiencememberswereaskedto
putonalargetabletheflatstoneskeptinthebagstheyweregivenatthe
entrance,thuscreatinganinterestingmosaic.Theywerealsogivenfruit
andvegetablestoputontopofeachstone.Asaresult,avisuallyfascinating
banquettablewaslaid,framedbyhundredsofglassesofwinethatwere
offeredbytheactorstotheaudienceastheconclusiontotheperformance.

TheGlasgowco-productionofTheOdysseywasacommunitytheatre

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performancewhosepoliticalefficacywasmaintainedintranslation.The
co-production,infact,wastheresultoffourweeksofcollaborationbetween
StalkerTeatro,TheWorkingParty,localvisualartistsandmembersofthe
localcommunitywhohadneverperformedbefore.Moreover,itendedwith
aone-dayworkshopwhereartistsfromthetwocitiesexchangedideasand
experiences.TheOdyssey,togetherwiththeworkshopandotherrelated
events,aimedatstrengtheningtheartisticcollaborationbetweenTurinand
Glasgow.WhileTheOdysseywouldnotbeclassifiedaspoliticalaccording
totraditionalnotionsofpoliticaltheatre,itspoliticalmeaningandefficacy
weretestifiedbytheaudienceresponseandaboveallbythelocalartists
andparticipants’response.ThelattersharedtheirenthusiasmforThe
Odysseyasanopportunitytodiscovertheirvoice,theircreativityandto
challenge their role within society.

Itisinterestingtonotethatanotherperformancewithsignificantpolit-

icalimplicationstookplaceinGlasgow12yearsearlier.ThiswasGlasgow
AllLitUp!,partofthecommunityprogrammeinGlasgowasEuropeanCity
ofCulture.For18monthsWelfareactorstrainedlocalartistsinlantern
makingusingJapanesetechniques,andthelocalartistsworkedwith250
communityorganisationsfromStrathclyde.Asaresult,on6October1990
therewasaparadeof10,000peoplecarryingabout8000lanternsacrossthe
city.ThegatheringendedwiththeWelfareStateperformancefollowedbya
fireworksdisplay.AsPaulKershawargues,thesemioticsofthelanterns,
thatisthepoliticsofrepresentationatworkintheparade,expresseda
pluralityofvoicessignifyingtheculturaldiversityofthecity,aswellas
producingasenseofsolidarityandcollectivebelonging.Theperformance
alsodealtwithstatepolitics.Whilethepolicehaddecidedtokeepthecity
centreopentocartraffic,inrealitytheprocessiondominatedthecity,andthe
trafficcametoastandstill.Sinceasanon-violentpoliticaldemonstration
thelanternprocessiontransgressedthedecisionofthelocalgovernment,in
Kershaw’s(1996:149)view,it‘openedup,metaphoricallyandliterally,a
new space for politically democratic action’.

Similarly,TheOdyssey,aspartofaone-monthseason,createdaspacefor

effectivepoliticalactioninitsinnovativeuseoftheTramwayTheatreby
offeringanopportunityforachallengingtheatricalandartisticexchange
betweenScottishandItaliancultures,andbyencouragingtheactive
involvementoflocalartistsandcommoncitizensinboththeproduction
andreceptionoftheperformance.LikeGlasgowAllLitUp!,thepluralityof
visualartistscontributingtotheperformanceguaranteedtheexpressionof
Glasgow’sculturaldiversity.Italsocreatedasenseofsolidaritybetween
professionalartistsandcommoncitizenswithnopreviousartisticexperi-
ence.Mostimportantly,allthiswasachievedthroughtheco-productionof
an Italian community performance.

Itisnotbychancethatsuchchallengingproductionstookplacein

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Glasgow.Scotlandhasalonghistoryofstagingforeigntheatrethatmakesit
averyfruitfulandstimulatingcontextforpoliticallyeffectiveperfor-
mances.TheGlasgowCitizensTheatreisrenownedforstagingforeign
playwrightssuchasMolière,CarloGoldoniandDarioFo,tonameafew.
Moreover,becauseoftheroleofitslanguage,Scotlandoffersfascinating
examplesofthetranspositionofplaysfromoneregionalcontexttoanother.
MartinBowmanandBillFindlaycollaboratedforanumberofyearsonthe
translationofMichelTremblay’sworksfromMontrealFrench,Joual,into
Scots.InBowman’sview,QuebecandScotlandarecompatibleinmany
culturalandsocialaspects,andScotsfunctionsasavalidmediumtotrans-
latetheidiomoftheMontrealworkingclass,andviceversa–in1998
BowmanandFindlayalsoadaptedIrvineWelsh’sTrainspottingintoJoual
(Bowman,1998).Intheirapproachtothesourcetext,BowmanandFindlay
tend,wheneverpossible,toavoidtheintroductionoftargetculturalmate-
rialasareplacementforforeignculturalreferences.Theirwork,among
otherthings,testifiestothecurrenttendencytouseScotsasthelanguagein
whichtotranslateforeignplays,asopposedtoEnglish(seealsoCorbettin
this volume).

TheScottishapproachtothetranslationofforeignplaysindicatesthat

theuseofnon-standardlanguages,suchasregionalvarietiesanddialects,
mightrepresentavitalelementofproductionsthatchallengeBritish
imagesofforeigntheatre.JatinderVerma’sproductionsofMolière’s
TartuffefortheRoyalNationalTheatrein1990andLeBourgeoisGentilhomme
forTaraArtsin1994,basedonhisowntranslations,representafascinating
example.TheyaretheproductofwhatVermadefinesasBinglishtheatre,‘a
contemporarytheatrepraxisfeaturingAsianorblackcasts,producedby
independentAsianorblacktheatrecompanies’thatchallengesdominant
practicesoftheEnglishstage(Verma,1996:194).Vermaistheartistic
directorofTaraArts,anindependentcompanycreatedin1977,that
searchesforadistinctivetheatricalform,basedonclassicalIndian
aestheticsandon‘arejectionofthedominantconventionofthemodern
Englishstage:thespokenword’(Verma,1996:199).ThroughBinglish
productionsBritishaudiencesareconfrontedwithvarietiesofwhatVerma
calls‘langues’–intendedaslanguageandtheatrepraxis–suchasCarib-
bean,Punjabi,Urdu,NigerianandSomali.VermausesvarietiesofEnglish
inhisproductionstocontesttheownershipoftextssuchasKingLear.The
factthatBinglishproductionsdrawuponnon-Europeantraditionsof
music,movementandimageryispreciselywhatdistinguishesthem.As
Vermaemphasises,Binglishproductionsareseenasprovocativeandstim-
ulatingbycriticsandaudiencesbecausethey‘negotiateaforeign-ness’
(Verma,1996:200).HisproductionsofMolièrewere‘exercisesintrad-
aptation’,atermheborrowsfromRobertLepage(Verma,1994)referringto
annexingoldtextstonewculturalcontexts.ByhavingIndianperformers

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actinginhisproductionsofMolière,VermachallengedBritishcommon
notions of ‘authenticity’ in stagings of French theatre.

Similarly,theadoptionofEnglishworking-classregionalidioms,suchas

LiverpudlianinthecaseofPeterTinniswood’sadaptationofEduardoDe
Filippo’sNapoliMilionariain1991,helpedtoconveythesocialstatusofDe
Filippo’scharacters.Theplay,setinwar-timeNaples,tellsthestoryofa
familykepttogetherandfedbyamotherwhosellsblack-marketgoods.
Herhusband,Gennaro,whodisapprovesofhiswife’sillegalbusiness,is
capturedbytheGermansandbythetimehecomesbackin1944hisfamily
isdestroyed.Hiswife,whohascontinuedtobearacketeer,hasarelation-
shipwithanothermanandhissonhasturnedintoathief(Billington,2000).

Theproductionreceivedpublicacclaim,andtheshowwassoldoutfor

months.MichaelBillingtonpraisedTinniswood’schoiceofLiverpooland
its language:

ThemostradicalaspectofPeterTinniswood’snewversionistoemploy
Liverpoolspeechrhythms.Theresultgivestheshowaworking-class
authenticityandsparesusthedelightoflisteningtoBritishactors
sounding like a convention of ice-cream vendors. (Billington, 1991)

BillingtonpointedtotwoadvantagesoftheAnglicisationofNapoli
Milionaria.Firstofall,Liverpoolspeechrhythmshelptoconveythesocial
statusofDeFilippo’scharacters.TheuseofanEnglishworking-class
regionalidiomrecreatestheconnectionbetweenthelanguageofthecharac-
tersandtheirclassidentitypresentinthesourcetext.Secondly,itavoidsthe
useoffakeItalianaccentswhich,associatedwithItalian-stylegesticulation,
hascaricaturingeffects.Inotherwords,Tinniswood’sadaptationcontrib-
utedtomakingthesocialandhumanissuesdealtwithintheplayresonate
withlocalaudiences.InthiswayNapoliMilionariabecameacoherenttheatre
textthatspoketotargetspectatorsonanemotionallevel,ratherthanbeing
aspectacleofItalianness.ThisisconfirmedbyBillington’sappraisalof‘the
broad-basedhumanityofaplaythatshowshowordinarypeopleareallbut
destroyed by the economic imperatives of war’ (Billington, 1991).

Alltheaboveproductionsreflectatranslationpracticethataimsat

toningdowntheculturalidentityofforeignplaysandatmakingtheirmises
enscènerelevanttotargetaudiencesforreasonsotherthantheircultural
connotations.Thisstrategy,whichbecamemorecommoninBritish
stagingsofPirandelloandDeFilippointhe1990s,indicatesadifferent
phaseandtendencyintheprocessofintegrationoftheothernessofforeign
playsintothetargetsystem.PeterHall’sproductionofDeFilippo’s
Filumena,translatedbythedramatistTimberlakeWertenbaker,andNicholas
Wright’sversionofPirandello’sNaked,stagedattheAlmeidaTheatrein
1998,constitutetwofurtherexamplesofBritishstagingsofItalianplays

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thatfocusedonevokingtheirvalidityastheatretextswithinacoherent
theatrical structure (De Filippo, 1998; Pirandello, 1998).

WertenbakerchosetotranslatetheNeapolitandialectofthesourcetext

inplainEnglish,withoutadoptinganyparticularregionalconnotations,as
sheexplainedinaninterviewwithCorrieredellaSera,buttoconveythe
dialectinflectionsoftheNeapolitandialectthroughtherhythmofthe
dialogue(DeCarolis,1998).Thelongspeechesofthesourcetext,often
organisedinacrescendoofrepetitivestatements,arereplacedbyconcise
dialoguesandpunchyphrasesinthestyleofcontemporaryBritishstage
prose.InJohnGross’sview,Wertenbaker’snewtranslationoftheplaywas
oneoftheaspectsthatmadeHall’sstagingsuccessful(Gross,1998).Critics
wereunanimousinpraisingJudyDenchandMichaelPennington’sperfor-
manceandspectatorsgavethemstandingovations.Thefollowingremark
byJohnStokes’sindicatesthatDeFilippowasnolongerperceivedasan
exoticItalianplaywright,butoneaccessibletoEuropeanaudiences:
‘Childrenarechildren–itisthiscreed–banal,heartbreaking–thatmakes
FilumenabothasNeapolitanasapaintedeffigyand,atthesametime,
broadlyEuropean’(Stokes,1998).ThismeansthatHall’sproductionof
FilumenastruckacordwithEnglishaudiences.Theuniquebondbetween
parentsandtheirchildren,insteadofbeingperceivedasaspecifically
Italianphenomenon,becamerelevanttolocalreceiversofDeFilippo’stext.

Similarly,accordingtoCharlesSpencer,itwas‘thepassionandthe

anguish’ofPirandello’stheatrethattheAlmeidaproductionofNaked
‘powerfullycaptured’(Spencer,1998).Spenceralsodescribedtheshowas
an‘intense,atmosphericexperiencethatwilltroublethememory’.The
positiveresponsethatboththeaboveproductionsreceivedseemsto
suggestthatBritishaudiencesandcriticsarebecomingmorereceptiveto
challenging stagings of foreign plays.

Ihavebeeninvolvedinatheatreprojectthataimedtomakethehuman

andsocialsignificanceofItalianplaysresonatewithAnglophoneaudi-
ences.ThiswastheBritishpremièreofSpiroScimone’splay,Nunzio,during
theInternationalPlaywrightingFestivalattheCroydonTheatreinLondon,
inOctober1999.Theplayissetinaone-bedroomflat,andtheprotagonists
aretwoSicilianswhohaveemigratedtotheNorthofItaly.Nunzioisseri-
ouslyillbecauseofthefumeshebreathesatwork,Pinoisakillerandtravels
allovertheworld.Theflatisaclaustrophobicenvironmentwhereboth
charactershidefromthesurroundingworld.Theoutsideworldis
constantlythreateningthroughphonecalls,carspassingbytheflatand
mysteriousenvelopespushedunderthedoor.InthisenvironmentNunzio
andPinodevelopaco-dependentrelationship:theycareforeachother,but
oftengetclosetofighting,inthewaythatEstragonandVladimirdoin
WaitingforGodot.Intheisolationofthekitchen,theybegintodiscovereach
other:PinorealiseshowseriousNunzio’sillnessisandtriestoprotecthim;

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Nunzio,inhisnaiveté,dreamsabouttravellingtoBrazil,likehisfriend.
Boththeclaustrophobicsettingandtherepetitivenatureofthedialogue
remind us of Harold Pinter’s theatre, particularlyThe Dumb Waiter.

JenniferVarneyandI,astranslatorsoftheplay,decidedtosetNunzioin

GlasgowandtotranslateitintoScottishEnglishtoconveytheculturaland
linguisticdistancebetweenstandardItalianandtheSicilianofthesource
text,whichwaswritteninthedialectspokeninMessina,myhometown
(Scimone,1999).ThedecisiontotranslateintoScottishEnglishautomati-
callyexcludedtheadoptionofastageItalianaccent,oranyotheraspectof
thestagerepresentationofItalians,suchasexcessivegesticulation.The
natureoftherelationshipbetweenthetwocharacters,theirinabilityto
communicatewitheachotheronaverybasichumanlevelasaresultoftheir
difficultyinexpressingthemselvesthroughwords,wereaspectsoftheplay
thatwetriedtobringoutinthisproductionbecausetheycanspeaktoa
British,oranyotheraudience.Theplaywaswellreceivedand,most
importantofall,audiencesseemedtorelatetocentralissuessuchasthe
characters’isolationandinabilitytocommunicate,ratherthantheir
Italianness.Althoughtheaboveproductiondoesnothavethesamepolit-
icalresonanceasTheOdyssey,itneverthelesssubvertscommonBritish
stagetraditionsthattendtofocusontheculturalidentityofforeignplays.

ReturningtoFoandRame,inDecember2005theworldpremièreofa

newplay,MotherCourage,CindySheehan’sRealandImaginaryDiary,trans-
latedbyTomBehan,wasstagedatPimlicoSchool,inCentralLondon,star-
ringFrancesdeLaTour.ItwasdirectedbyMichaelKustowandpromoted
byStoptheWarCoalitionatthetimewhenCindySheehan,motherof
Casey,a24-year-oldUSsoldierwhowaskilledinIraqonApril42004,took
heranti-warcampaigntoBritain.Theperformancewaspartofapeace
conferencethatpromotedglobalpeacedemonstrationstotakeplaceon18
March2006.Itisamonologue,basedonnewspaperarticlesandaboveall
letterswrittenbySheehantoGeorgeW.BushandtoBarbaraBush.More
precisely, as indicated in the press release by Stop the War Coalition:

HereffortstogetanexplanationfromPresidentBushaboutthedeath
ofherandothermother’ssonsledhertopitchcampoutsidethe
presidentialranchthroughoutAugustthisyear.Thepersistenceand
growingangerofthiswomanwhowasnicknamed‘PeaceMom’made
herthefocusofanationwidemovementagainstthewar,whichgoes
from strength to strength.

MotherCourage,astraightforward,colloquialmonologueofacommon,

anonymousmother,isextremelypowerfulinvoicingtheangerandprotest
ofthousandsandthousandsofUScitizenswho,likeCindySheehan,
personallyrebelagainstthewarinIraqanddonothesitatetocondemn
Bushandhisgovernmentascriminalsandkillers.Theimmediacyofher

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words,combinedwithdetailsoftheeventsfollowingherprotest,havethe
effectofwhatthepoetBuskaarcalls‘turningstones’inhisballaddedicated
to Cindy Sheehan, as explained in the play:

ThesestonesareoutintheNevadadesert,attheedgeoftheGreat
Prairies.They’reroundandalmosthollowinside,apartfromasmall
stone,whichisroundaswell,butthatactslikeashuttlecock.Whenthe
windstartsblowingthestonesstartturning,andinsidethemthesmaller
stonemovesfasterandincreasesthewholemomentum.Ifyouslightly
pushoneofthesestonesyou’llhearastrangesoundcomeout,which
makesanoiselikesomebodywho’stalkingbutwhomakesnosense.
That’swhythesestonesarealsocalledthe‘talkingstones’orthe‘singing
stones’.[...]Cindy’sstoryisliketheoldIndiantaleaboutthesinging
stone,blownbythewind,it’sforcedtospinaroundoutontheprairie.
Butitsmovementdragsotherstonesalongwithit,andtheyallrubup
againsteachother,creatingsparksthatsetfiretothewholeprairie.

AsinthecaseofvariousplaysbyFoandRame,thismonologueisthe

productofspecificpoliticaleventsnarratedandbroughttolifeonstageto
encourageeverydaypeopleintheirstruggleagainstinjustice.Thisis
confirmedbySheehan’scomments:‘Ihopetheplaycanbeusedasananti-
wartool,toputahumanfaceonthiswar,toshowCaseyhadalife,wasa
person’(quotedinHiggins,2005).Tothisend,afterpublishingafirstdraft
onJacopoFo’swebsite(www.alcatraz.it;accessed10.06),FoandRame’s
providedthefinalscript,asrequestedbymany,togetherwiththeEnglish
version(www.alcatraznews.com),accompaniedbythefollowingappealto
makethetextknownintheEnglish-speakingworldbysendingittoUSand
Britishcitizens:‘Lanciamoatuttiunappelloaffinchéquestotestopossaviaggiare
neipaesianglofoniearrivialmaggiornumeropossibiledistatunitensieinglesi’
(‘Welaunchanappealtoeverybodyinthehopethatthistextcanbestaged
inEnglish-speakingcountriesandreachasmanyUSandBritishcitizensas
possible’).Asindicatedontheweb,plansareafoottocontactMichael
Moore for a version of the play to be produced in the United States.

TherearenumerousplaysbyFoandRame,whichhaveneverbeen

translatedintoEnglishandareunknowninAnglophonecountriesfor
variousreasons,particularlybecauseoftheirdocumentaryordidactic
structure,whichmakesthemdifficulttotransposetoforeigncountries.The
worldresonanceofMotherCourage,thefactthat,ratherthanbeingbasedon
theItaliansocialorpoliticalcontext,referstothewarinIraq,havingthere-
foreasignificanceforthewholeinternationalcommunity,facilitates
Behan’scommitmenttothetranslationandstagingofunknowntheatre
textsbyFoandRame.Moreover,thestagingofthis,togetherwithother
plays,particularlywithinpolitically-relevantcontexts,asinthecaseofthe
peaceconferencepromotedbyStoptheWarCoalition,makesitevenmore

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valuablesinceitcanfurthercontributetoreinforcingaresistantapproach,
whichallowsustorediscoverthepoliticalfunctionofFoandRame’splays.
Lastbutnotleast,giventhatMotherCourageisnotsetinItaly,norhasItalian
characters,itsculturaloriginsbecomeirrelevantwhenitisputonstage,
hencethemonologueissafefromtheabove-mentionedBritishapproach
that focused on the cultural connotations of Fo and Rame’s theatre.

Theadoptionofnon-standard‘langues’,asshownbyTinniswood’s

adaptation,appropriateactingtechniques,aninnovativeuseoftheatrical
spaces,asinthecaseofTheOdyssey,and,Iwouldadd,thetranslationsof
playwrightsunknowntoEnglish-speakingcountriesaresomeoftheways
throughwhichitispossibletoinfusenewlifeintoforeigntheatreintheUK.
Mypersonalexperienceasatranslatorand,aboveall,currentpracticesof
translationandpostmoderntheatre,seemtoconfirmthatBritishstagings
offoreignplaysaretakinginnovativeandexcitingdirections.Itistherefore
vitalthattheatrescholarsandprofessionalsdocumentanddiscussthe
productionsthatadheretosuchtranslationstrategies,inordertobetter
understandifandhowtheatretranslationpracticesaffectourinteraction
with other cultures.

References

Auslander,P.(1992)PresenceandResistance:PostmodernismandCulturalPoliticsin

ContemporaryAmericanPerformance.AnnArbor:TheUniversityofMichiganPress.

Billington, M. (1991) Family at war with itself.Guardian, 29 June.
Billington, M. (2000) Making a living out of war.Guardian, 29 April.
Bowman,M.(1998)TrainspottinginMontreal:FromScotstoJoual.Unpublished

paper presented at the University of East Anglia.

DeCarolis,P.(1998)JudyDench:Filumenadiventainglese.CorrieredellaSera,10

October.

De Filippo, E. (1998)Filumena(T. Wertenbaker, trans.). London: Methuen Drama.
Gross, J. (1998) Old but still smashing.Sunday Telegraph, 11October.
Higgins,C.(2005)DarioFo’snewplay:Anti-warcryofaPeaceMom.Guardian,12

December.

Kershaw,P.(1996)Thepoliticsofperformanceinapost-modernage.InP.Campbell

(ed.)AnalysingPerformance(pp.133–152).Manchester:ManchesterUniversity
Press.

Pirandello, L. (1998)Naked(N. Wright, trans.). London: Nick Hern Books.
Scimone,S.(1999)Nunzio(S.TavianoandJ.Varney,trans.).London:Arcadia

Publishers and Agents.

Spencer,C.(1998)Binochebareshersoulinaplayofpassion.DailyTelegraph,19

February.

Stokes, J. (1998) Priceless tears.Arts, 23 October.
Taviano,S.(2005)StagingDarioFoandFrancaRam:Anglo-AmericanApproachesto

Political Theatre.Aldershot: Ashgate.

Verma, J. (1994) An interview with Lepage.Guardian, 5 October.
VermaJ.(1996)ThechallengeofBinglish:Analyzingmulti-culturalproductions.In

P.Campbell(ed.)AnalysingPerformance(pp.193–202).Manchester:Manchester
University Press.

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Chapter 5

The Style of Translation: Dialogue with
the Author

JOSEPH FARRELL

Introduction

Translationtheoryasanacademicdisciplinehasflourishedinrecent

yearsandindeedhastakenonalifeofitsown,independentoftheactivities
oftranslators,althoughnomoresothanliterarycriticismfromthecreative
workofwriters.Itmayhaveinthe20thcenturyassumedamoresystematic
form,butitisnotasnewabranchofintellectualactivityasitsmoreardent
proponentsbelieve,ifonlyforthereasonthatnoonecaneverundertake
translationwithoutbeingpuzzled,baffled,intriguedandoccasionally
morallyconcernedabout,ontheonehand,theimportanceandnecessityof
translation,and,ontheother,aboutthelimits,difficulties,frustrationsand
temptationsoftheenterprise.Inconsequence,thereisacorpusof
intriguingthoughtfromothertimes,oftenintheformofscatteredreflec-
tions,occasionalremarksinprefacesorcasualthoughtsinlettersrather
thanintheformofsystematictreatises,whichcanenrich,andwidenthe
scopeof,thethinkingofthosewhodedicatethemselveseithertotranslation
ortotheorising on the nature of translation.

Ifmanyoftheseoccasionalsayingsfromthepast,likethelengthy

treatisesfromthepresent,concernthedifficultiesofrenderingthe
substanceandessenceofmeaning,asignificantnumberaddresstheprob-
lemsofrenderingstyle,aquestionthathasnotassumeddueprominence
amongcontemporarytheorists.‘Numquamverbumproverbo’,wroteCicero,
thefirstoftheadvocatesofatranslationfreeenoughtorespectthespiritof
anoriginalpassage,orpieceoforatory,butaccurateenoughtorespect
style,inhiscasethe‘Atticstyle’ofrhetoricheadmiredintheAthenian
orators’(Weissbort&Eysteinsson,2006:21).Otherages,especiallytheAgeof
Enlightenmentwithitsbeliefinrulesinindividualgenresandinuniversal
standardsoftaste,wereconcernedwithcanonsofappreciation,andwere
convincedoftheirownrighttointervenetocorrectthecarelessnessorigno-
ranceofwritersfromearliertimeswhohadnotheededtheserules.Thereare
twopointsthatmaketheseobiterdictaofinteresttotranslatorsortheorists
today.Firstly,intheiregoisticstrugglewiththewritertheysetouttorender

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howinanotherlanguagethepracticeof18th-centuryoperativesimpacts
on,andclasheswith,contemporarynotionsofthe‘invisibility’ofthetrans-
lator.Secondly,Enlightenmenttranslatorswereconcerned,implicitlyor
explicitly,withquestionsofpurestylistics.Evenifthepreceptsadvocated
arejudgedunsatisfactory,thequestionsraisedareworthyofattentionfrom
moderntheorists,whoarefrequentlymoreconcernedwithbarriersto
understanding created by divergences between cultures.

Respect for Style

AlexanderPope,inhisintroductiontohisEnglishversionoftheIliad,

expatiatedontheneedtorespectnotonlysubstancebutalsostyle,noting
thepoem’s‘gracefulanddignifiedsimplicityaswellas(its)boldandsordid
one,’andconcludingthat,sinceHomerwascloserinspirittoBiblical
writing,‘hisstylemustofcoursebearagreaterresemblancetothesacred
booksthanthatofanyotherwriter’(Pope,1996:13).Asimilarconcernwith
styleisshownbytheItalianpoetandtranslator,theabateMelchiorre
Cesarotti(1730–1808),rememberednowastranslatorofOssian.

Cesarotti

didnotspeakEnglish,butitwashewhoproduced,fromtheFrench,the
editionofOssianthatNapoleonreadandre-readandcarriedwithhimon
hiscampaigns.ItwasCesarottiwhowas,morethananyothersingleindi-
vidual,responsiblefortheOssiancrazethatsweptcontinentalEurope,and
ledtoOssianinfluencing,andbeingquotedadmiringlyby,suchwritersas
GoetheandUgoFoscolo.CesarottihadnotvisitedScotlandbutthatdidnot
preventhimfromincludingafewlinesofwildRomanticspeculationabout
thecountryinhisintroductoryremarks,theRagionamentopreliminare
attornoaicaledoni(PreliminaryConsiderationsontheCaledonians).Once
thesehavebeensetaside,theprefaceisstimulatingforCesarotti’sviewson
thetotalityoftasksfacingthetranslator.LikePope,Cesarottifocusedon
questionsrelatingtotasteandstyle,anditisinthiscontextthathisqueries
andperplexitieshaveanenduringrelevanceandcanbeusedtodeepen
contemporary theorising.

Cesarotti’sapproachwasdictatedbyEnlightenmentnotionsofratio-

nalityandorder,aswerethoseofJamesMacpherson

(1971),whowas

Cesarotti’ssourceandthemanwhofirstpublishedandgaveshapetothe
Ossiancycle,drawingitfromdifferentGaelicnarrativepiecesbutclaiming
it,falsely,asanoriginal‘epic’.Whataretheaspirationsandlimits,asked
Cesarotti,thatatranslatormustsethimselfinhisendeavourstorender
conceptsaselusiveasthespiritofaworkofpoetry?Hestatedthathisinten-
tionhadbeennotsomuchtorendertheletteroftheoriginalastorischiarare,
rammorbidire,rettificareetaloradiabbelliretheworkofthepersonhebelieved
tobeOssian.Theseverbscanbetranslated,withnoviolencetoCesarotti’s
views,as‘toilluminate,tosoften,torectifyandattimestoembellish.’Itis

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clearthatthereismuchherethatcouldbedebated.Macpherson,again
motivatedbythesameEnlightenmentscepticismasCesarotti,hadinter-
venedintheoriginalGaelicpoetrytoeliminateallreferencetothesuper-
naturalortofairyfolklore,inthebeliefthathisreaderswouldbeputoffby
thenotionthatspiritsorgnomeshadoncewanderedthehillsandvalleys.
TheabateCesarottistillfoundMacpherson’sprose-poetry,atleastinthe
Frenchversionhehadbeforehim,toocoarseandroughforthetastesofthe
salonsandacademiesthatwerehisidealaudience,sohemodifieditsharsh-
ness,decidedtorenderitinverseandtomakethestyleconformtocontem-
porary,neo-classicalstandards.Thegoodabatewascandidabouthis
procedures,andheaddedanother,moreenigmatic,verbtohislist.Such
werehislove,respectandadmirationforthepoemthathisambitionwas
gareggiarconesso(literallyto‘strugglewithit’).Thisverbdoesnothavethe
weakcontemporarysenseofpuzzlingoverproblems,oftusslingwiththe
vocabularyorofhavingdoubtsovervariousinterpretations.Rather,ithas
themorerobustsenseofseeingtheoriginalasanadversary,asanopponent
againstwhomthetranslatorisrequiredtopithiswits,gladiatortogladi-
ator.Itisintheactofgareggiarethatthetranslatorcanpermithimselfwhat
mustotherwiseseemlikethearroganceofbelievingthatheisentitledto
rettificareoabbellireaworkwritteninaccordancewithdatedcanonsthatare
notthoseofhisownday.Thetranslator,inthisperspective,isthereverseof
thehumble,invisibleservantofthesourcetext.Heislikeabotanistwho
abrogatestohimselftherighttouprootplants,orwords,sentiments,ideas
andculturalconceptsandplanttheminadifferentsoil,climate,tempera-
tureandculture.Hewillalsoquestionhimselfinpublicovertheethicsof
thisoperation,preciselybecauseherecognisesthatheisengagedina
dialogue–whichmaywellbetheequivalentmoderntermwhichbest
conveys the deep sense ofgareggiare– with the author.

Asapreliminaryandforpurposesofclarity,IwouldliketoaddthatI

havenosympathywiththeviewthatthemerefactoftransposingawork
acrossculturesgivesthetranslatortheright,alwaysandinevitably,tothe
statusof‘secondcreator.’Thenovelist,playwrightorpoetis‘onliebegetter’
andassuchisresponsibleforthewholerangeofcreativityrequiredto
produceanimaginativeworkoffiction.Itisthewriterwhochoosesthe
narrativevoice,whoestablishesthescaleofvaluesunderlyingthefiction,
whoelaboratesitselusivevision,whodeterminesthepaceofaction,the
unfoldingofrevelations,themaintenanceorreliefofsuspense,thedirec-
tionoftheplot,thevivacityofindividualscenesandencounters,thetoneof
dialogue,thefeltlifeoftheemotionsdepicted,thedepthofcharacterisa-
tion,therhythmoftheprose,thequalityofthedescriptivepassages,the
credibilityofthecreatedcomplexandindeedallthemultiplefactorsthat
constitutecreativity.Thetranslatorworksonlyonthelanguage,butithas
tobestatedthatthisisataskconcerningnotonlyindividualwordsor

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passages,ashasbeenknownsinceCicero,butalsothedelicateentity
knownasstyle.‘Lestyle,c’estl’homme’,LaRochefoucauldfamouslywrote,
sowhatarethepossibilitiesofbeingtruetothemanbymaintainingstylein
translation?Eighteenth-centurytranslatorshadthemeritofbeingawareof
the complexity and validity of this problem.

The Translator in Dialogue

Thesedialoguesbetweentranslatorandauthoraremorefrequenttoday

whenthedemandforthetranslationofcontemporarytextsisgreaterthan
atanytimeinprevioushistory.Theauthorsofthegreatclassictranslations
inEnglish–SirThomasUrquhartofRabelais,JohnFlorioofMontaigne,
DrydenofVirgil,PopeofHomerorevenScott-MoncrieffofProust–were
engagedindialogueswithdictionaries.Buttranslatorsofliteraryworkby
livingauthorswilloftenfinditnatural,ifnotessential,toseekadviceand
clarificationfromtheauthorsoftheoriginalwork.Attimes,translators
mayreceivenovelschapterbychapter,playscriptsscenebysceneorearly
draftsoffilmscriptswithrequestsnotonlyfortranslationbutalsoforreac-
tion.Atonelevel,thisinteractioncanproducematerialforamusinganec-
dotes.ThenovelistHughMcIlvanney,afterwritinganovelsetinGlasgow,
tellsofreceivingarequestfromhisJapanesetranslatorforanexplanationof
what‘PartickThistle’was.ThepuzzledJapaneseassumedfromthecontext
thatitwassomearcanerite,whileitisinfactafootballteamthatplaysinthe
westofthecity.Conversely,thelateWilliamWeaver,thedistinguished
translatorofUmbertoEcoandItaloCalvino,tellsofadiscussionwithan
Italianauthorwhoinsistedthattheexpressionimortishouldbetranslated,
notas‘thedead’asWeaverhadwritten,butas‘thedeads’.TheItalian
argued,withimpeccablelogicbutfaultysemantics,thatthecorpsesin
questionweremorethanone.Whenengagedinfruitfuldebate,thetrans-
latortakesonthepositionnotonlyofculturalmediatorbetweensourceand
targetculture,butalsothatofparticipantincreativedialoguewiththe
author. This status does, however, give birth to new dilemmas.

SomeofthesewereexaminedrecentlybyAndréAcimaninhistrenchant

critique of the recent retranslation of Proust’s Recherche:

ShouldEnglishresolvetheambiguitiesthatwereconvenientlyover-
lookedorleftintentionallyopaqueintheoriginalFrench?Onemight
betemptedtosay‘yes’but‘no’isthecorrectanswer.Anauthorsays
whathesaysintheverywayhesaysitnotnecessarilybecauseheis
aftertheutmostclarity,or,forsomemysteriousreason,notunrelated
towhatwecallthecreativeprocess,becausehewishestoseesofarand
nofurther,toseeonethingwithouthighlightingallofitsancillary,
shadowmeanings,butbecausethewordshehasselectedintheorder

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thatheselectedthemallowhimtosuggestthingshedoesnotwishto
say or know how to come right out and say. (Aciman, 2005: 74)

Ifthewriterchoosestoleavecertainmattersunsaid,itmaybebecausehe

doesnotknow,notbecauseheelectsnottotell.Whatisleftunstatedhasthe
sameclaimtothetranslator’srespectaswhatisassertedordeclaimed.
Thereisatemptationtointerpret,andattimesaneedtointerpretamong
variouscompetingmeanings,butthetranslatorhasnorighttoimpose
wheretheoriginalisambiguous.Translationneverconferstherightto
rewrite, nor to invent style.

ThereflectionsofAlistairReid,himselfapoetandwriteraswellastrans-

latorofPabloNerudaandJ.L.Borges,areilluminatingbothonthenatureof
thewriter–translatordialogueandonthedilemmasrelatedtotransferring
style.InapoemsignificantlyentitledWhatGetsLost/LoQueSiPierde,Reid
writes:

I keep translatingtraduzco continuamente
Entre palabraswordsque no son las mias
Into other words which are minede palabras a mis palabras
Y finalmente de quien es el texto
Who do words belong to?
Delescritor edeltraductorwriter, translator
O de los idiomasor to language itself? (Reid, 1994: 221)

The Voice of the Writer

Wordsmaybelongtolanguage,butthevoicebelongstotheartist.There

aredifferentmotivesforundertakingatranslation,ofwhichapassionfor
theworkinhandisnottheleast,butthatpassionwill,ofnecessity,includea
loveforthewriter’svoice.‘Thereisavastbodyoftranslationinwhichin
whichtheenlighteneddisclosureofadmirationisprimary–akindof
substantiveembodimentofpraise’,wroteBenBelitt(1978:32),another
distinguishedtranslatorofSouthAmericanpoetry.Oneoftheparadoxesof
thediscussionofthevalueofatranslationisthatitcanbecarriedoutonly
bythosewhohavenoneedforatranslationinthefirstplace.Thefunda-
mentalquestion,whetheratranslationwillservethosewithscantknowl-
edgeoftheoriginal,canbeansweredonlybysuchcognoscenti,butshould
beamongtheconcernsofthetranslator.Isitenoughtoproduceatransla-
tionthatreadswellinEnglish,butwhich,whileitdoesnotmistranslateor
misleadinanysignificantway,ismoreofaparalleltextthanarenderingof
thestyleinwhichtheoriginalnarrativevoiceexpressesitself?Proust,Joyce
andPirandellomaybetakenassupremeexamplesofatraitcommontothe
vastmajorityofthewritersofmodernitywhohaveachievedclassic,or
canonical,status:theprosetheyemployismorethanavehicleorconvey-

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ancebuthastheflowandliltofpoetry.JoyceandPirandelloproduced
volumesofpoetry,whileProustarrivedathisownstyleafterfamiliarising
himself,andwritingabout,thestyleofJohnRuskin,theessayistwho,
unlikehiscontemporariesMacaulayandCarlyle,wasanexponentofthe
belletristic style.

OfnocontemporaryItalianwriteristhismoretruethanofVincenzo

Consolo(1933–),onwhomIwouldnowliketofocustoexaminequestions
ofstyleintranslation.Consolo,authorofjustafewhighlywroughtand
elaboratelyworkednovels,isaSicilianwhorecogniseshimselfas
belongingtoaSiciliantraditionthatseesLuigiPirandello,GiovanniVerga,
LuigiCapuanaandFedericoDeRobertoasits19th-centuryfounding
fathers,andVitalianoBrancatiandLeonardoSciasciaasitsprimeexpo-
nentsinthe20thcentury.ItisnotpossibleheretosummariseConsolo’s
ownpoetics,excepttosaythathecombinesaradicalismofsocio-political
outlookwithapolemicallyexpressedcontemptforthelanguageofthe
contemporary‘mass-media’novel.Partlyforthisreason,Consolohas
striventoachieveapoeticstyle,fitforanartnovelandshornofalltaintof
contaminationbythedebased,commercialisedplainnessofmedia-speak.
As he said in an interview published in French:

Noussommesassiégésparlacommunicationtotale.Jecroisquelafaçonpour
retrouverunespacelittérairenouveauc’estderapprocherlaprosedelanarra-
tiondelaformepoétique,jedisformeetnonpassubstance,luiconférerune
certainedignitépoétique,delarendremoinsconsommable.Toutenétant
laïquejedisqu’ilfaudraitdéplacerlaproseversuneauraplussacréeetmoins
commerciale.

(Cederman, 1993: 472)

Consolo’ssubjectsaretakenfromthepastorpresenthistoryofSicily,but

hedistrusts‘narrative’asthoroughlyasdidPaulValéry,andhisnovelsare
aconscious,evenself-conscious,mosaicwhosestonessendbackechoesof
otherwritersandreferencestoworksofart.Hisradicalismextendstothe
languageheuses:notSiciliandialectbutanelaborateidiomthatallowsfor
nodistinctionbetweenstandardItalianandlocalSicilianterminology.This
lexisisnotaventureintoantiquarianpurity,butanattempttodisputethe
authorityofcentresofpoliticalpowerandlinguisticacceptability,andto
assertthedignityofthelanguageusedbypeopleinplacesfarremoved
frommedia,political,industrial,financialorlinguisticauthority.Theresult
isastyle,conventionallydescribedas‘Baroque,’whichcanbeinturnsas
hardasflintandasdelicateasablossomandwhichhasbeenforged
accordingtoConsolo’sownaestheticcanons.Theobjectionisoftenmade
thatthereisaclashbetweenhisradicalidealisminpoliticsandanallegedly
élitistcomplexityofstylewhichmeansthathisnovelsareaccessibleonlyto
alearnedminority.Consolorebutsthis,insistingthathisaestheticsand
linguisticsmoveintandemwithhispolitics,inthesensethataswriterhe

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reassertsthedignityofpeasantspeech,whilehischaractersasserttheir
claimfordignityashumanbeings.Consolo’slanguagehasalsobeencalled
‘Joycean,’andwhileitistruethatheadmiresJamesJoyce,thecomparisonis
misleading.Joycecheerfullycoinedandcreatedwordsthathadnever
previouslybelongedtoanylexis,butConsoloemploysonlytermsthat
havesomebasisinhistoricaluse,eveniftheyhavenotbeenacceptedinto
national use.

Thereis,inotherwords,aconvergencebetweenlinguisticandpolitical

radicalisminConsolo’swriting,buthisstylepresentsdifficultiesforthe
mainlandItalian,aswellasforthetranslator.Iwouldliketodiscussthese
problemsinrelationtooneofConsolo’snovels,Ilsorrisodell’ignotomarinaio
(TheSmileoftheUnknownMariner).

Thetitle,inillustrationofthepoints

madeabove,isthenamegiventoawell-knownpaintingbytheearly
Renaissancemaster,AntonellodaMessina,whichisnowintheSiciliancity
ofCefalùinacollectiononcethepropertyofBaronMandralisca,theprotag-
onistofthenovel.Somewriterswithlittleinterestintranslationsoftheir
workhanditovertothetranslatorinthespiritofamotoristignorantof
mechanicstakinghiscarintoagarageforrepair.However,inthecaseof
thisnovelist,collaborationwiththeauthorisindispensable,andgener-
ouslygiven.Onesmallexamplemightsufficetoillustratethedifficulties
withvocabulary.Inadescriptivepassage(Consolo,1976:119),theword
iracòoccurred.Fromthecontext,itwasplainlysomekindofplant,butno
dictionary,eitherItalianorSicilian,couldindicatewhichone,anditwasnot
knowntootherSiciliansIconsulted.Consoloexplainedthatitwasaflower
ofthegenusmagnolia,nowalmostextinct,whichhehadonceseen
growingwildintheprovinceofTrapaniineasternSicily.Theworditself
wasinuseinthevillageofMàcari,whosepopulationnumberedperhaps
200,fewofwhomwerelikelytobereadersofConsolo’sworks.Therewas
noreasontobelievethewordhadanywidercirculationinsideSicily,andit
wascertainlynotusedonthefarsideoftheStraitsofMessina.Consolohad
beenenchantedbytheword,notbecauseofitsrarity,butbecauseofits
sound,itscadence,itspoeticquality.Itenhancedtheflowandrhythmofhis
ownprose-poetryinthepassageinquestion,andsoheincorporatedit.
Meaningitselfwasnotsecondary,buthisreaders’awarenessofthat
meaningwas.Thesentenceflowedlikeawave,breakingoverindividual
words,whosepotencycamenotfromtheirsenseoreventheirassociations,
butfromtheirimpactaspartofapassagethatsparkled.Inspiteofthe
unflinchingquestioningthatunderpinshisfiction,Consolocreatesdelicate
soundsystems,whicharenotnecessarilyonomatopoeic.Atthesametime,
hedrawswordpicturesbyreferencestoknownworksofart:heuses,for
example,thetitlesofGoya’sseriesofetchings,Desastresdelaguerra,toillus-
tratethedevastationofthetownofAlcàraliFusiaftertheriots.Heusesthe
brushasmuchasthepen,butsincehedoesnotidentifythepaintingsin

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question,thetranslatorhastoavoidthetemptationtorevealmorethanthe
writer chooses to.

The Use of Dialect

ThequestionwashowtoconveyinEnglishtheimpactcreatedbya

distinctivestyle.Problemsrelatingtowordssuchasiracòcanbetakenas
partofawiderdiscussionabouttheuseofdialect,whichisarecurring
problemwithItaliantexts.TheRenaissanceplaywrightRuzante,the18th-
centuryVenetianplaywrightCarloGoldoni,manygenerationsofNeapol-
itanwritersaswellascontemporaryfiguressuchasDarioFoandPierPaolo
Pasoliniallemploydialect.Someuseitinstinctivelyasthenative,natural
languageusedintheplacewheretheywerewriting;othersuseitfordelib-
erateeffects.Severalwritershaveaskedthatsomeequivalentdialectbe
foundfortranslationsoftheirwork,butdialectshaveadifferentfunction
andstatusinItalyfromwhattheyenjoyinothercountries.StandardItalian
onlylatterlyachievedtheprimacyofplaceinItalythatthenational
languagehadlongenjoyedinotherEuropeancountries.Itisacceptableto
performorwritealloverItalyinNeapolitanorVenetian,buttoimagine
that,forexample,ScotsorIrishcouldcommandcomparableprestigeinall
English-speakingcountriesisamistake.Thisisnottoquestiontheworthof
doingtranslationsintoScots,Irishorwhateverforperformanceorpublica-
tioninthosecountries,asBillFindlay(towhosememorythisvolumeis
dedicated)didsosplendidlywithhisScotstranslationsoftheQuebecois-
dialectworksofMichelTremblay,butweneedtoestablishparametersfor
its use.

Yetifdialectisrejected,thetaskoftranspositionofallthatiscalledstyle

inConsolo,andothers,ismadedauntingtothepointofbeingvirtually
impossible.IsstandardEnglishcapableofcapturingthemanifoldnuances
ofmeaning,thevarietyofsocialimplicationsimpliedbyvocabulary,the
hierarchyofrankimpliedbychoiceofidiom,thesynergyofwordandposi-
tion?Consolo’sgildedprosealsoquestionsthenatureoflanguage,
pointingtoitsrolenotasystemofcommunicationbutascypherofpower.
Inhisnovel,Consoloaimstogivevoicetothosewhoneverhadavoice–the
peasantry–buttheBaronwhosideswiththemisawarethat,precisely
becauseofhispositionasanaristocrat,hecanonlyeverspeakforthem,
neverastheyspeak.Consolo’sstyleistotallyidiosyncraticandisatone
withhiscivicconscience.Cesarotti’sdecisiontorischiarare,rammorbidire,
rettificareetaloradiabbellire,torecastinanidiomjudgedmoreacceptableis
notanoptionforamoderntranslator,forwhomtheaimistoreproduceand
notrewrite.Letusreturntothepassagethatincludedthewordiracò.The
rebelswhohadrisenagainsttheoldlandownerclass,andinfavourofGari-
baldiandthenewLiberalorder,hadbeenputdownbrutallybytheliber-

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atingarmytheythoughttheyweresupporting.Whileawaitingexecution,
theywereimprisonedinagrimcastle,whichConsolodescribes,castingthe
descriptionaspartofanappealforclemencybyBaronMandraliscatoa
colleagueinarmsintheRisorgimentostruggle,nowpromotedtotheposi-
tion of prosecutor. Mandralisca quotes Plautus, then continues:

EVirgilio...Machedico?Diechiparlavamo.Citornavanoindietrogonfiati
anchelevocinostre,ibisbigli,ifiati,l’asmadiMatafú,irisolinidelGranza,i
passi.Prendemmoacamminareingirodeclinando.Sulpavimentoaciottoli
impetratoricovertidascivolosomuscoedalicheni,traleparetielavoltadel
cunicololevigateamalta,jisso,atratticomespalmatedimadreperlapesta,
pastadevetro,verniced’Indiaolacca,lustre,comeporcellanedellaCina,
porporainsullelabbra,sfumanteindentroversoilrosaeillatte,atrattigonfie
escalcinateperpenetrazionid’acqua,chedallavoltagocciolaacannolichi
càlcichi,deturpatedamuffebruneeverdi,fioridisalnitroecapelvenerea
cascatedeallecrepe:luogodidelizieorigine,rifugiodifrescurapelprincipeela
cortelungoitregiorniinfocatidiscirocco,comelecascatelledellaZisa,ilaghie
iruscelliaMaredolce,igiardiniintricatidibergamottiepalme,lespalleastelle
dijasmino,trombettedidaturaericcid’iracò,lecubeelecubaledeicaliffi
musulmani,ocomelefantasiecontorted’acquesonantiediverzure,dipietree
diconchigliedell’architettoLigorioPirropelCardinaleD’Este.(Consolo,
1976: 118–9)

[AndVirgil...butwherewasI?Weweretalkingabouttheechoes.Our
voices,whispers,breathing,Matafu’sasthmaticwheeze,Granza
Maniforti’ssniggers,ourfootsteps,inflatedbeyondrecognition,
pursuedusaswebegantodescend,followingthecircularpath.We
madeourwaydownoncobblestonescoveredwithlayersofslippery
mossandlichen,betweentunnelwallsandceilingsmoothedand
shiningwithmortarorgesso,insomeplacesseeminglycoatedwith
mother-of-pearl,crushedglass,Indianredpaintorlacquer,with
purpleedgingsshadingintomilk-whiteandpinktintsintheinner
sections,andallasbrightasChineseporcelain;inothers,bulgingand
peelingwithwaterdrippingfromthevaultstoformcalcifiedrazor
clams,tarnishedbybrownandgreenmildeworbysaltpetreandmaid-
enhairferntumblingfromthenumerouscracks.Aplaceofprime
delights,arefugeofrefreshmentfortheprinceandthecourtduringthe
threedaysofscorchingscirocco,liketheflowingwatersoftheZisa,the
lakesandstreamsofMaredolce,thegardensplantedwithbergamots
andpalmtrees,theespalierswithjasminestars,daturatrumpetsand
magnoliacurls,thekiosksandcubicalpavilionsoftheMuslimcaliphs;
orlikethewaywardfantasiesofgurglingwatersandlushgreenery,the
riotofstonesandshellsdevisedbythearchitectLigorioPirrofor
Cardinal D’Este. (Farrell, 1994: 105–6)]

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Consolostretchessyntaxbeyondthepointoftolerance.Thecardinalsin

inanytranslationofaprose-poeticstylesuchasConsolo’sistolosethe
melody,themusic,thecadences,therhythm,oralternativelythedryness,
theanger,thedespair.Thecentralaimmustbetoreleasetheenergy,tohint
atthatunderlyingmagicthatdefiesanalysisandtoavoidflatteningastyle
thathasthequalityofsong.Thedistaffsideofthataimistoensurethat
phoneylyricismmustnotbewrittenintotheasperityofastyledesignedto
conveybrutality,inhumanityandsavagery.Thetranslator’sobligations
mustincluderegardforstyle.Nottoallowthedistinctivevoicetobeheard
is to accept failure.

Notes

1.Ossian (1807–1810). All references are to this edition.
2.ForawidertreatmentofMacpherson,andrefutationofnotionsthathisOssian

was a vulgar fraud, see F.Stafford(1988) and H. Gaskill (ed.) (1991).

3.‘Wearebesiegedbytotalcommunication.Ibelievethatthewaytorediscovera

newliteraryspaceistobringnarrativeproseclosertopoeticform,andImean
formandnotsubstance,togiveitacertainpoeticdignity,tomakeitless
consumable.WhileIamnon-religious,itismybeliefthatitisimportantto
endowprosewithamoresacred,lesscommercialaura.’(author’sown
translation)

4.ImustcraveindulgenceifIbasethispartofthearticleonmyexperiencesin

translatingthisnovel.ThequotationsIprovideareofferednotasproofof
successinmeetingthestylisticchallengesdiscussedhere,butasanempirical
example of the difficulty.

References

Aciman, A. (2005a) Proust’s way?New York Review of Books,1December, pp. 62–5.
Aciman,A.(2005b)FarfromProust’sway.NewYorkReviewofBooks,15December,

pp. 74-5.

Belitt, B. (1978)Adam’s Dream: APreface to Translation.New York: Grove Press.
Cederna, C.M. (1993) Entretien avec Vincenzo Consolo.CritiqueXLIV, part 553/4.
Consolo V.(1976)Il sorriso dell’ignoto marinaio.Turin: Einaudi.
Farrell, J. (trans.) (1994)The Smile of the Unknown Mariner.Manchester: Carcanet.
Gaskill. H. (ed.) (1991)Ossian Revisited. Edinburgh:EdinburghUniversityPress.
MacPherson,J.(1971)ThePoemsofOssian.IntroducedbyJ.MacQueen.Edinburgh:

James Thin.

Ossian,(1807–10)PoesiediOssiananticopoetacelticotradottedaMelchiorreCesarotti(4

volumes).Florence: Molini, Landi e Comp.

Pope, A. (1996) Preface toThe Iliad of Homer.London: Penguin Books.
Reid,A.(1994)AnAlistairReidReader:SelectedProseandPoetry.Hanover,NH:

University Press of New England.

Stafford, F.(1988)The Sublime Savage.Edinburgh:EdinburghUniversityPress.
Weissbort,D.andEysteinsson,A.(eds)(2006)Translation:TheoryandPractice.

Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Chapter 6

Chekhov in the Theatre: The Role of
the Translator in New Versions

HELEN RAPPAPORT

Introduction

Overthelast30ormoreyears,theEnglishstagehasprovidedfertile

groundforaburgeoningtheatricalphenomenon:thenewversionor
adaptationofaforeign-languageplaybyacontemporaryplaywright.
UndoubtedlyoneofthemostpopularforeignplaywrightswithBritish
audiencesisAntonChekhov.Theatregoersnevertireofhim,evennow,
almost100yearsafterhisdeathandseemalwaysreadytoaccommodate
yetanothernewproductionofwhatis,inessence,averyslimopus.Much
ofthisisprobablydowntothefactthatheshareswithShakespearethatrare
qualityofbeingwhatDavidHare(2001:5)called‘theultimateuniversalist’;
heisabletoconveylifeinallitslayeredcomplexitiesand,insodoing,seem
relevant to every age, every generation.

Sincetheautumnof2001therehavebeenseveralmajorChekhov

revivalsinLondonalone–PlatonovattheAlmeida,IvanovattheNational
Theatre,UncleVanyaattheDonmarWarehouseandThreeSisters,theWest
Endproductionofwhich,starringthefilmactressKristinScottThomas,
wascloselyfollowedbyyetanothernewversionattheNationalTheatrein
August2003.ThisisnottomentionotherregionalChekhovproductionsin
2003,suchastheOxfordStageCompany’stourofTheCherryOrchardand
PeterStein’sproductionofTheSeagullattheEdinburghFestival(thelatter
using,tothesurpriseofmanycritics,ConstanceGarnett’s1920stransla-
tion)whichranconcurrentlywithaSeagullproductionatChichester,inyet
anothernewversion,thisonebyPhyllisNagy.Andinthespringof2006
therewasyetanotherSeagull:theNationalTheatrestagedanewversionby
Martin Crimp.

Inaninterviewin2002,priortotheopeningattheNationalTheatreofhis

ownmammoth‘Russian’trilogy,TheCoastofUtopia,dramatistTom
StoppardobservedthateveryonewantstowriteaChekhovplay.Failing
this,ifplaywrightscannotwriteone,thenmanyaspiretoatleastadaptone.
Indeed,onemightsayitisnowthetheatricalnormforanyplaywrights
worththeirsaltsoonerorlatertooffertheirowntake,notjustononeofthe

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fourgreatplays,butevenonthosethatChekhovconsideredfailures.The
fashion,ofcourse,isnotconfinedsolelytoChekhov,buthaslongsince
spreadtoothermajorEuropeanplaywrights,whoseworkissimilarly
beingrevisited.Inmanyways,onemightarguethatthisisaverygood
development:thattheadventofnewversionsoftheworkofobscureor
long-forgottenEuropeanplaywrightsisextremelyvaluable–foritbrings
totheattentionofthetheatre-goingpublicarangeofforeign-language
plays that they might otherwise never see.

JohnArdenwasoneofthefirsttosetthetrendwaybackin1963withhis

versionofGoethe’sGötzvonBerlichingenasIronhand.ChristopherHampton,
afineadaptorofChekhov,has,sincethe1970s,becomewellknownalsofor
hisnewversionsofMolièreandIbsenandforresurrectingtheworkofthe
forgottenAustrianplaywrightÖdönvonHorváth.Yetevenhisownlong-
standingversionofthelatter’sTalesfromtheViennaWoodshasnowbeen
supersededbyanewversionfortheNationalbyanewkidontheblock,the
up-and-coming Scottish playwright, David Harrower.

LikeHampton,TomStoppardsimilarlyreinventedtheworkofMittel

Europeans,suchastheAustrianJohannNestroyandtheHungarian
FerencMolnár.PeterTinniswoodhastackledtheItalianofEduardode
Filippo;LeeHallandRanjitBolthavereworkedBrechtandGoldoni;Frank
McGuinness,aswellasworkingonnewversionsofChekhov,hasadapted
IbsenandBrecht;andNickWright,anotherplaywright-adaptorwhowith
ThreeSistersattheNationalinAugust2003hadhisfirstChekhov,hasgiven
usnewversionsofWedekind’sLulu,aswellasworksbyPirandelloand
Ibsen.EventhenovelistAnthonyBurgessturnedhishandtonewversions
ofoldtheatricalclassics–Rostand’sCyranodeBergeracandaninventive
EnglishversionofGriboedov’sWoefromWitunderthetitleChatsky.Foran
interestingoverviewofsuchversions,butonewhichfails,sadly,todiscuss
theroleoftheliteraltranslatoratall,seeRosenthal(2001).Anotherveteran
playwrightadaptorofbothChekovandIbsenisPamGemswho,inthe
springof2003providedthenewlyrefurbishedAlmeidaTheatreinLondon
withanewversion:TheLadyfromtheSea.Inallcases,however,Iusethe
word‘version’advisedly.Becausethatisnot,ofcourse,whatthepress
announcementssay.Almostwithoutexception,whentrumpetingthe
arrivalofanewversionofaforeignplay,theywilltalkoftheplaywright-
adaptor’s ‘new translation’.

The Advent of a New Theatrical Genre

Thevoguefornewversionsofforeignplayscanbetracedbacktothe

innovativeworkofLondon’sRoyalCourtTheatreinthelate1960s,atatime
whentheBritishsubsidisedtheatrefirstbeganreceivingfundingfromthe
ArtsCounciltoenablethecommissioningofnewwork.Priortothat,the

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commercialtheatrehadadheredtothetraditional‘bums-on-seats’policy
withregardtoforeign-languageworks,rarelystaginganythingmorethan
theoccasionalChekhovorIbsenplay,andusuallyasastarvehiclefor
big-nameactors.Fromthe1930stotheearly1960s,revivalsofthefourlate
greatChekhovplays,instandard,off-the-shelftranslations,hadbeenthe
preserveofthatgreatBritishtriumvirateJohnGielgud,LaurenceOlivier
andMichaelRedgrave.Gielgudwasactor/directorofTheSeagullin1936,
ThreeSistersin1937,andTheCherryOrchardin1961;OlivierstagedUncle
Vanyaduringthe1944–5seasonattheOldVicandtouredwithThreeSisters
in1967,andRedgraveappearedinamemorableChichesterFestival/Old
Vic production ofUncle Vanyain 1962.

Achangeindirection,andincasting,camewiththerevivalin1960of

Chekhov’shuge,ramblingearlyplayPlatonovattheRoyalCourt,starring
RexHarrison,anactorlargelyknownforhisfilmroles.Fiveyearslater,
Ivanov,starringGielgud,haditsfirstmajorLondonrevival(althoughithad
beenseenatthemuchsmallerArtsTheatrein1950starringMichael
Hordern)andtransferredtoBroadwayayearlater.TheGielgudversion
wasoneofthefirstofwhatwouldbeanewwaveofadaptations,thetext
beingaccreditedtoGielgud,‘fromatranslationbyAriadneNicolaeff’.In
1967newgroundwasagainbrokenwithanadaptationofThreeSistersby
thethenhighlyfashionableEdwardBond,‘assistedfromtheoriginal
Russian’asthetitlepagestates,‘byRichardCottrell’,directorofthe
CambridgeArtsTheatreandhimselfaRussian-speaker(Bond,1967).This
wasalsothefirstChekhovproductiontocastanon-actorandpopstar–
Marianne Faithfull – in a lead role.

Fromhereon,adistinctshiftinnewChekhovproductionsbegan,with

themovefromactor-vehicletoplaywright-vehiclebecomingmoreand
morethefashion.Theoldguardofreverentialliterarytranslatorssuchas
ConstanceGarnett,ElisavetaFenandDavidMagarshackwouldberapidly
supersededbyanewgenerationofnon-Russian-speakingplaywrights
workingfromliteraltranslations,whosemajorpreoccupationwouldbethe
accessibilityofnew‘actingversions’ofChekhov’stexts.Theprimary
argumentinfavourofthisnewapproach,aswellasintherejectionofthe
old,moreacademictexts,wasthatacademicpractitionersweredeemed
unabletotranslateforstageperformancebecausetheylackedtheessential
knowledge of stagecraft and the experience of working with actors.

Bond’sThreeSisterswasrapidlyfollowed,attheRoyalCourtin1970,by

ChristopherHampton’sversionofUncleVanya,fromatranslationbyNina
Froude.Afterthis,therewassomethingofahiatusuntil1977,whenanew
benchmarkforChekhovadaptationwasset,withTrevorGriffiths’sMarxist
takeonTheCherryOrchard.Thisopenedthefloodgatestomanymorenew
versionsofChekhovplaysbyBritishandIrishplaywrights,includingPam
Gems,MichaelFrayn,PeterGill,TomStoppard,BrianFriel,DavidHare,

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DavidLan,FrankMcGuinness,ThomasKilroy,AnnJellicoe,Howard
Barker,MustafaMaturaand,mostrecently,DavidHarrowerandMartin
Crimp.Andthisisnottomentionthosetranslatingandadapting
ChekhovintheUSA,suchasDavidMamet,PaulSchmidt,Langford
Wilson,Jean-ClaudevanItallieandGeorgeCalderon,aswellasthearrival
ofcinematicregionalisations,ifnottranspositionstoanothercountryalto-
gether,withUncleVanyaalonebeingreworkedinfilmversionssetinNew
YorkbyDavidMametinVanyaon42ndStreet(1994),inWalesbyAnthony
HopkinsinAugust(1996),andevenintheAustralianoutback,inMichael
Blakemore’sCountry Life(1994).

The Role of the Literal Translator

Myown,somewhatunexpected,entryintotheatretranslationcamein

1977asliteraltranslatorofTheCherryOrchardforTrevorGriffiths’sversion
atNottinghamPlayhouse.ItwassomethingIfellintoquitebyaccident.At
thetime,Iwasworkingintermittentlyasanactress,havingstudiedRussian
atLeedsUniversity.AcalltoanauditionatGranadaTelevisionforaTV
seriesBillBrand,writtenbyGriffiths,hadledtoameetingwithhimanda
conversationaboutmypassionforthingsRussian.Igotasmallpartinthe
seriesbut,moreimportant,weekslater,TrevorGriffiths,wholivedhalfa
mileawayfrommeinLeeds,rangmeupandaskedifI’dbeinterestedin
doingaliteraltranslationofTheCherryOrchardforhim.Itprovedtobethe
firstoftwelvetranslationsofRussianplaysthatIhaveworkedon,
includingrevisitstobothTheCherryOrchardandThreeSisters,albeitmany
years apart.

Havingworkedcloselywiththedirector,whenIwasaskedtotranslate

theplayagainforaNationalTheatreproduction,inaversionbyDavidLan,
in2000,myfirstthoughtwasthattherewaslittlemorelinguisticallythatI
couldusefullyadd.Onreflection,itoccurredtomethatmaybetheaccumu-
latedwisdomofanother15years’acquaintancewithRussianmightmakea
difference.AndIwasright,for,assoonasIstartedworkingonthetext,I
wassurprisedathowmanynewthingsIfound,particularlywhen
promptedbytheanalyticalmindsanddetailedquestioningofDavidLan
anddirectorKatieMitchell.Mitchell,ofalltheplaywrightsanddirectorsI
haveworkedwith,hasanextraordinary,somemightsayworrying–I’dsay
noble–concernwithtextualanalysisandgettingatthetruth.Ittakeseven
themostjadedtranslatorofwhatseemsanover-familiartextdownnew
and untrodden paths.

Peopleoftentalkabouttheconceptofthe‘actor’sdirector’;Katie

Mitchellisprobablythetranslator’sdirectorparexcellence.Sheplacesan
enormoustrust–aswellashugeexpectation–intherolethattheliteral
translatorcanplayinthecreationofanewversionofaChekhovtext.Inmy

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ownworkwithheronthreeChekhovplays,shehasbeengenerousin
accordingmemuchmorethanthetitleof‘literaltranslator’,asomewhat
belittlingtagthatmanytranslatorswhodotheworkreject.Ifonlythe
theatre managements would stop insisting on using it!

WheneverIhaveworkedwithKatieMitchell,shehasalwayscredited

measdramaturgcumRussianconsultantanddrawsexhaustivelyonmy
specialistknowledgeofthingsRussian,notjustduringthepreparationof
thetextbutalsothroughoutrehearsals.Somedirectorsandevenplay-
wrightscan,inmyexperience,haveasomewhatcavalierattitudetothe
literaltranslation.Forthem,thetranslator’sroleendsassoonasthetextis
delivered,oftenwithvirtuallynoquestionsorfeedbackbeingsenttothe
translatorthereafter.Insodoing,theycanbecompletelyblindifnot
insensitivetotheusefulrolethatthetranslatorcanplay,notjustduringthe
ensuingtranslation/adaptationprocess,butalsobeyondthat,indiscus-
sion with the actors.

Afewdirectors,suchasMitchell,havegraspedthecrucialrolethatthe

translatorcanplayastheall-essentialconduitbetweentheoriginal-
languagetextandtheactorswhoperformit.Myfirstexperienceofworking
withherin1998onUncleVanyaopenedupawholenewworldofwhatone
mightcall‘forensic’translation.Wespentmanyhappybutintensehours
together,andlaterwithDavidLan,onadetailedanalysisofthetextand
whatwecametocallitscrucial‘buzzwords’.KatieMitchell’smanyques-
tionspromptedmetodrawupcopiouscontextualnotes,notjustonthe
language,butalsoonthehistorical,literaryandsocialbackgroundtothe
play–notesthatshe,Davidandtheactorsfoundinvaluableinrehearsal
andwhich,tomyowngratification,prompteddiscussionthataffordedall
ofusmomentsofprofoundinsight.Moreimportant,fromalinguisticpoint
ofview,amorein-depthanalysisofthenuancesofmeaningofRussian
words,idiomsandphrasesledinmanycasestothepreservationinthefinal
version of the originalliteralmeaning of the text.

TrevorGriffithshadastutelypickeduponthisbackin1977when,tocite

averysimpleexample,ratherthangofortheuntil-then-acceptedtransla-
tionoftheendearingRussianwordogurchik(‘mylittlecucumber’)as‘my
littlepeach’–onthegroundsthatEnglishaudienceswouldfindthispecu-
liar–heoptedtopreservetheoriginal.Morerecently,acriticreviewing
Mitchell’sproductionofUncleVanyacommentedonDavidLan’srendering
ofConstanceGarnett’soriginaltranslationof‘25wastedyears’ofthe
Russian‘dvadtsat’pyat’letperelivaetispustogovporozhnee’as‘25years
pouringwaterfromoneemptybucketintoanother’asbeinginspirational.
Butinfact,themetaphorwasChekhov’s(‘25yearspouringfromoneempty
thingintoanemptierone’),andtheplaywright’sfinalversionofthiswas
directly facilitated by the literal translation.

Inmyexperience,goodplaywrightsanddirectorsofnewversionsare

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oftendelightedbythewit,quirkinessandnaturalcharmoftheoriginal
Russian,qualitiestowhichasnon-Russianspeakerstheyhadpreviously
beenoblivious,thankstodecadesofover-paperingbytranslatorsofthe
original,vibrantRussianidiomswithlacklustreEnglishequivalents.Such
playwrightsanddirectorsareusuallyalsoreceptivetothetranslator’s
defenceoftheintegrityoftheoriginaltext,eveniftheydonotultimately
takeonboardtheirobjectionstowhatseemrather-too-freerenderingsofit.
Butwhilstdedicatedtheatregoersmightbeabletorecogniselibertiesbeing
takenwithalong-familiarclassicplay,theywillnotbeawaretowhatextent
anewversionofanobscureorforgottenforeignplaywrightistheexaggera-
tion or even invention of the adaptor.

Theplaywrightapproachinganewversionofaforeign-languageplayis

bedevilledbymanyconflicts,nottheleastofwhicharemaintaininga
degreeoflinguisticloyaltytotheoriginaltextandhonouringtheoriginal
playwright’sintentions,whilstmakingthetextaccessibletotheactors.But,
moreimportant,theymustconstantlyresisttheinjectionintothescriptof
theirownpersonalbiasandlinguistictics.WritingintheSundayTimes
abouthisownproductionfortheOxfordStageCompanyofanewversion
ofTheCherryOrchardbySamAdamson,DominicDromgoole(2003:22)
arguedthat‘youhavetobringyourself,andyourowntimeandyourown
language,halfwaytowards[theoriginal].Andyouhavetomakesureyou
don’timposeanypattern,socialorpoliticaloraesthetic,onanindependent
life that only wants to stay free’.

InanilluminatingintroductiontohisnewversionofTheSeagull,

commissionedbyPeterHallfortheOldVicin1997,TomStoppardtouched
uponthedifficultiesofadaptation,andofgrapplingwithwhathecalledthe
‘ledgerprinciple’ofadaptation–theneedtoscrupulouslyaccountforevery
linguisticnuance,wordbyword,linebyline(Stoppard,1997:vi).Arguing
thatthemainpurposeoftheplaywright’scraftinthisinstanceistoserve
theactors,hestressedthatultimatelytheplaywrighthadtowork‘forthe
event’,thatistheperformance,attheriskofsacrificingelementsof
linguisticauthenticity.Hisaimhadbeen,heexplained,to‘liberate’thetext
‘withouttakingundueliberties’(1997:vi).Insimilarvein,intheintroduc-
tiontohis1977versionofTheCherryOrchard,TrevorGriffithsmadethe
pointthathisprimaryobjectivehadalsobeen‘toprepareaversionofthe
playforperformance’;itwas‘not,finally,theliterarytradition’thathe
intended to act upon, ‘but the theatrical’ (Griffiths, 1978: v).

AparticularlycomplexchallengeispresentedbyChekhov’sPlatonov–

‘sixhoursofsometimesrepetitiveandludicrouslyoverwrittenspeechify-
ing’,asDavidHaredescribedit,thathe,intheprocessofadapting,
neverthelessfoundfullof‘thrillingsunburstsofyouthfulangerand
romanticism’(Hare,2001).Hare’swasthesecondmostrecentreworkingof
Chekhov’sdeeplyproblematicplay,whichhadpreviouslybeenadaptedin

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anewversion,WildHoney,byMichaelFraynin1984.Frayn,whoistheonly
ChekhovadaptorwhoisalsoaRussian-speaker,openlyadmittedthat,for
hisversion,hehadcutoutmanysubplotsandminorcharactersandreor-
ganisedthechronologicalsequence;heevenwentsofarastochangethe
suicideattheend.DavidHare,forwhomIprovidedtheliteraltranslation
forthe2001production,wasmorerigorousinretainingChekhov’soriginal
structureandplan,hisobjectivebeingto‘recoinandrebalance’theplay,as
heputit,by‘clearingawaymassiveamountsofrepetitionandindulgence’
ratherthanimplementingamoredrasticreworking.Insodoinghehoped
thathisnewEnglishversionwouldstillrevealtotheaudienceayoung,
unrestrainedChekhovwho‘letshisownpassion,emotionalconfusionand
political despair show uncensored and unmediated’ (Hare, 2001).

Surprisinglyperhaps,itisoftennotthefreerlinguisticversionsof

Chekhov’soriginalRussiantextthatprovokeobjectionsinthetranslator;
indeed,someofthebestversionsIhaveworkedonarethosethatcapture
thespiritandatmosphere,the‘dramaticcore’asfellowtranslatorDavid
Johnstonhasputit,oftheoriginalwhilstbeingfairlyfree.Itisthetruthof
Chekhovthatmatters,andwhereadaptationbecomesdangerousand
erroneousiswhereassumptionsaremadeaboutChekhov’spersonalpoint
ofview,andwherethehistoricalorsocialcontextisdistortedtothepointof
no longer being ‘Russian’.

TrevorGriffiths’versionofTheCherryOrchardwasaboldattemptat

unshacklingtheplayfromthedeadeningEnglishtheatricaltraditionof
nostalgia,thehallmarkofwhichJonathanMilleroncedescribedasthe
‘KeatsGrove,genteel,well-mannered’styleofacting.Griffiths’sintention
wasclear:todoawaywiththetiredoldstandardapproachthathadset
ChekhovproductionsinstoneintheBritishtheatre–whathecalled‘the
fineregretfulweepingoftheprivilegedfallenonhardtimes’.For50years
Chekhovhad,Griffiths(1978:v)argued,been‘thealmostexclusiveprop-
ertyoftheatricalclasssecretariesforwhomtheplayshavebeenplangent
andsorrowingevocationsofan“ordered”pastnolongerwith“us”,its
passing greatly to be mourned’.

Eschewingwhathecalledthe‘sentimentalmorality’ofsuchall-too-

familiarversions,Griffithscuttothejugularinhisownversionby
refashioningthestudentTrofimovinhisownimage,asaclear-headed
Marxist,withovert,revolutionaryintentions,wholambastesthetsarist
oppressionofthepoorbyfamouslydescribingtheurbanmassesasliving
in‘shit’.TheoriginalRussianwordis,ofcourse,typicallyChekhovianinits
neutrality.Trofimov,talkingoftheovercrowdinginurbantenements,says–
andthisisasliteralasIcanmakeit–‘everywherebedbugs,a(bad)smell,
damp,moraluncleanliness’.InElisavetaFen’s(1954:364)versionfor
Penguin,thisistranslatedas‘bedbugs,badsmells,dampandimmorality
everywhere’.InGriffiths’version,weleapto‘bedbugs,shit,leakingroofs,

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moraldegradation’.Itmayonlybeasingleword,butit’sawordthat
expressesGriffiths’srageratherthanChekhov’spointofview.Itsringisas
hollow,asalso,intheproductionwastheMarxist-cum-black-powersalute
givenbyTrofimovattheendofanotherpedagogicspeechinAct2.This
newandmoredynamicTrofimovcertainlylentanedgy,politicaldimen-
siontoGriffiths’versionoftheplay,butonecan’thelpagreeingwithcritic
MichaelBillington,thatforallitspower,Griffiths’stextwasofferingusa
‘cunningly editorialised version’ of the original (Billington, 1984: 15).

Thedanger,asBillingtonsorightlyobserved,wasthatwhilstthe

GriffithsCherryOrchardwasahighlyintelligentandplayabletranslation,it
perhapsofferedrathertoomuchhindsightinitsmoreovertsuggestionsof
politicalchangeintheair.Griffiths’sview,however,wasthatbystrength-
eningtherolesofthe‘newmen’(thatisTrofimovandLopakhin)and
movingtheemphasisawayfromRanevskaya,hehad‘shiftedtheforcesof
theplayandre-ordereditsinherentbalances’(Griffiths,1978:vi).Suchan
interpretation,basedonareadingofTheCherryOrchardasdemonstrating
Chekhov’sfaithinprogress,isinfactaverySovietone.Anditisonethat
keptSovietacademicsoccupiedformanyyears,astheystruggledtooffer
upcommunistreadingsofanunrepentantlyapoliticalplaywright.Through-
outthe73yearsofSovietrule,productionsinRussiastrivedtoovercome
theobstacleofwhatChekhovhimselfcalledhis‘indifferentism’(Frayn,
1996:xvii)andpresenthisplaysastheclarioncallofrevolution.Butthisis
todenyoneofthefundamentalsofChekhov’sart:hisinsistencethatthe
author must be animpartial witness– nothing more (Frayn, 1996: xx).

The2002productionbySamMendesattheDonmarWarehouseofBrian

Friel’sversionofUncleVanyapresentedaparticularlyvexedproblemfor
me,asRussianconsultant.Inplacesitwasutterlyinspiredinitsdistillation
ofthespiritoftheoriginalandinsomeofitsmoreimaginativereworkings
ofidiom.Butitwasalsoveryfreewiththeoriginaltext,and,more
troublingly,inplacesittotallyignoredhistoricalaccuracy.Iwondered,
whenIopenedtheprogrammeonthefirstnightandsawitstitlepage
cheekilyannouncethatIwasabouttosee‘UncleVanyabyBrianFriel,a
versionoftheplaybyChekhov’,whetherIwastheonlypersontobemore
thanalittletakenabackbyFriel’schutzpah.GuardiancriticMichael
Billington’sreviewoftheproduction,whichhepraisedforits‘visual
clarityandemotionalcharity’wasquicklytemperedbytheobservation
thattheproductionwasnevertheless‘moreaFriel-isationthanafaithful
realisation’(Billington,2002:20).Andindeed,asonereadsthroughthetext,
despitebeingimpressedwithFriel’sundoubtedflairasadaptor-play-
wright,hisuseofartisticlicenceresultsinawholesalereworkingof
Telegin’s character.

WhatalsoalarmedmewastofindinAct4,whereVanyaandSonyasit

downtoitemisetheirexpenditureonstapleRussiancommoditiessuchas

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lentenoilandbuckwheatflour,thatFriel’sversionhadtransformedthis
intoadiscussionaboutthepurchaseofbarbedwireandfencingposts.In
19th-century,ruralRussia?ItwasasthoughtheVoinitskyestatehad
suddenlybeenpickedupbyawhirlwindandploppeddownintheAmer-
icanMidwest.Itisutterlyabsurdtotalkoflandbeingfencedoffwith
barbedwireandpostsintheblackearthregionof19th-centuryRussia.
Vanyadoesnotmanageacattleranch;andinanycase,heisfartooimpov-
erishedtobeabletoaffordexpensivebarbedwire,importedfromtheUSA,
orluxuriessuchasready-madefencingposts.Suchacavalierreworkingof
the original text was anachronistic at best and ill-informed at worst.

New Versions: Whose Work is it Anyway?

Intheevent,despitetheobjectionsIraisedtothisaswellasseveralother

points,directorSamMendesdecidedtostaywiththefencingpostsand
barbedwire.Theproduction,althoughitwasn’tquiteChekhov,was
heapedwithpraise,althoughBillingtonwasnottheonlycritictoraise
doubtsabouttheveryfreehandFrielhadtakenwiththeoriginal.Billington
hasinfactbeenmonitoringnewversionssincetheearly1980swithsome
interestandwasoneofthefirstcriticstoexpresshisapprehensionsabout
theriseofthe‘stardramatist’whosawitashisfunctiontoleavehisorher
‘unmistakablesignature’(Billington,1984)allovertheworkofaforeign
playwrightthattheywereadapting.Thisnewtrend,hasofcoursebeen
workingverymuchagainstliterarytranslators,whoconstantlyhaveto
battlefortheatremanagementstostagetheirowntranslationsofplays
withouttheinterventionofabig-nameplaywright.Butallthesenew
versions,astheygetfreer,distanceusevermorefromtheoriginal.Noone
nowwouldwanttogobacktothekindofreverentialbutstiltedscholarly
translationsofChekhovfirstproducedbyConstanceGarnettorElisaveta
Fen,butintherushtoreinterpretChekhov’s–oranyotherforeignplay-
wright’swork–innewandexcitingways–areweperhapslosingsight,line
byline,yearbyyear,ofthetruespiritoftheoriginalplays?AsBrianLogan
(2003)recentlyobserved:‘Thecult...seemsasskewedagainstfaithful
translationastheacademics’monopolywasagainstdrama....Audiences...
arebeinginsulatedfromtheoriginal’.So,whenanewproductionofa
ChekhovplaybyBrianFriel,orChristopherHamptonorTomStoppardis
announced,whoseworkareaudiencesreallypayingtosee–theoriginal
playwright’sorthatofhisadaptor?Andarewerapidlycomingtothepoint
wherenewversionsarecommissionedjustforthesakeofit,whenthereare
oftenmorethanenoughgoodtranslationsorversionsalreadyinexistence?
Withsomanynewversionsofforeign-languageplaysnowappearingin
theBritishtheatre,critics,understandablyenough,havebecomeincreas-
inglylazy,byblurringthemarginsbetweentheoriginalplaywright,the

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mediator-translatorandtheplaywright-adaptor.Totalkofsoandso’s‘new
translation’hasnowbecomeanacceptedshorthandamongcriticsforwhat
isinfact‘soandso’sadaptationofaliteraltranslationoftheplaybyX’.
Whilstitisonethingtomarginalisethetranslator,isitrightthatthedead
playwright who wrote the original should be marginalised too?

The Disappearing Translator

Lookingthrougholdpresscuttings,programmesandpublishedplay

texts,itispossibletocharttheappearance,disappearanceandalltooocca-
sionalre-emergenceofthenameoftheliteraltranslatorinpressreviews
andtheatreprogrammes.Theonlyconclusiononecomestoisthattheprac-
ticeisanentirelyarbitraryone,dependentonthegoodwilloftheparticular
theatre,directorandplaywrightinvolvedineachproduction.After25
yearsand12translations,itishardformenottofeelcynicalanddiscour-
agedaboutthepositionofthemuch-underratedliteraltranslator.Itstill
gallsmetoopenthepaper,asIdidinJuly2002ontheopeningofIvanovat
theNational,forwhichIprovidedthetranslation,toreadleadingTimes
theatrecriticBenedictNightingalestate(2002:14):‘WhoistranslatingKatie
Mitchell’srevivalofChekhov’searlyIvanov,nowinpreviewatthe
National?Why,DavidHarrower,theScotsauthorofKnivesandHens’.
HarrowerknowsnotawordofRussian.Andwhilstonemightforgive
theatregoersforbeingoblivioustothecontributiontranslatorsmake,why
isitthattheBritishcriticssosteadfastlyrefusetoacknowledgethem?Ithas
beenmyownsoberingexperiencethat,whilstcriticsmightoccasionally
stopandquestiontheoccasionallinguisticlibertytakenwiththetextin
newversions,whentheydofindsometurnofphraseparticularlyarresting
itneverseemstoentertheirheadsthatthetranslatormighthaveplayed
some part in helping the author of the new version arrive at this.

Wehavenowarrivedatapointwherethevastmajorityofcriticsview

translationasbeingsynonymouswithadaptation,somuchsothatBenedict
Nightingale,writinginthesummerof2002abouttheChekhovproductions
thenrunning,talkedofplaywrightsworkingonforeigntexts‘withtheaid
ofcribs’(Nightingale,2002:14),aless-than-generousattitudetotheworkof
theliteraltranslator.Ofcourse,theironyisthatNightingalehasavalid
point.AlltheplaywrightsIhaveworkedwithhavecertainlyadmittedto
draftingtheirversionsfrommyliteraltranslation,inconsultationwithup
tohalfadozenotherpublishedtranslations.Ofourcontemporaryplay-
wrights,onlyRussian-speakerMichaelFrayncantranslatewithoutresort
toaliteralversion.Andhehasverystrongviews:‘Translating’shard
enoughifyoucanunderstandtheoriginal.Tryingtodoitfromsomeone
else’sliteraltranslationwouldbelikeperformingbrainsurgerywearing
thick gloves’.

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SuchconsiderationshavepromptedDavidLantoobservethattransla-

tionsofplaysare‘likeforgeries.Allthetimethey’remade’,heargued,
‘there’sachancethey’llpersuadetheiraudiencethatthey’rethegenuinearti-
cle’(Lan,1998:vii).Backin1984Billingtonhadtalkedsimilarlyofthistrend
as‘theparasiticpracticeofpseudo-translationinwhichadramatistsecond-
guesseswhattheoriginalsaid.’Heappealedfortheatregoersto‘putmore
faithinthelinguist-translatorandabitlessinthename-dramatist’
(Billington,1984:15).TheRSC’s2003stagingofIbsen’sBrand,inatransla-
tionbythehighlyrespectedtranslatorMichaelMeyer,marksarenewalof
interestintheworkofthededicatedprofessionaltranslatorratherthanthe
fashionable playwright.

The Deceptive Simplicity of Chekhov

Fewplaywrightshavehadtosustainsuchpersistentandrepeated

assaultsontheirworkasAntonChekhov.Butintheend,ofcourse,no
matterhowmanytextsplaywright-adaptorshaveattheirdisposaltodraw
on,Chekhovwillalwayseludethem.Itiseasytobebeguiledbyhisdecep-
tivelyunclutteredandsimplelanguage;toseekideologywhereitisnotto
befound;tointellectualisewheretheoriginalisspareandellipticalandthe
languageneutral.WhatMichaelFrayn(1996)hasdescribedasChekhov’s
‘transparency’mightseemagifttothemodernadaptor,butitcanalsobe
hisundoing.ForinChekhov’ssubtletyandhisscrupulousobjectivitylies
hisgreatness;tomesswiththesefundamentalqualitiesquicklydistorts,
andshiftstheverydelicatebalancesthatpreservetheequilibriumofhis
beautifully measured plays.

BenedictNightingale(2002:14)hasdescribedChekhov’sgiftasbeing

theabilitytowriteaboutordinaryhumanlives‘withasortofepicinti-
macy’.Andperhapsthisiswhyhewillcontinuetodefyanydefinitive
translation.AsStoppard(1997:v)observed,inapologisingforofferingthe
worldyetanotherversionofTheSeagull,‘Youcan’thavetoomanyEnglish
Seagulls:attheintersectionofallofthem,theRussianonewillbeforever
elusive’.

References

Billington, M. (1984) Villains of the piece.Guardian, 9 November.
Billington,M.(2002)UncleVanya:SamMendesexcelswithChekhov.Guardian,19

September.

Bond,E.(1967)AntonChekhov:ThreeSisters.AnewversionbyEdwardBond.

AssistedfromtheoriginalRussianbyRichardCottrell.RoyalCourtprogramme
and script.

Dromgoole, D. (2003) Trapped by translation.Sunday Times, 25 May.
Fen, E. (trans.) (1954)Anton Chekhov: Plays.London: Penguin.
Frayn, M. (1996)Anton Chekhov: Plays. London: Methuen.

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Griffiths,T.(trans.)(1978)AntonChekov:TheCherryOrchard.ANewEnglishVersionby

Trevor Griffiths from a Translation by Helen Rappaport.London: Pluto,

Hare, D. (2001) Chekhov’s wild, wild youth.Observer,2 September.
Lan,D.(1998)AntonChekhov:UncleVanya.ANewVersionbyDavidLanfromaLiteral

Translation by Helen Rappaport. London: Methuen.

Logan, B. (2003) Whose play is it anyway?Guardian, 12 March.
Nightingale, B. (2002) Pieces of his action.The Times, 9 September.
Rosenthal, D. (2001) Pardon my French.The Times, 2 October.
Stoppard,T.(1997)AntonChekhov:TheSeagull.ANewVersionbyTomStoppard.

London: Faber and Faber.

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Chapter 7

The Cultural Engagements of Stage
Translation: Federico García Lorca
in Performance

DAVID JOHNSTON

Introduction

Since1986theplaysofGarcíaLorcahavebeenperformedinEnglish

withincreasingregularity.

ButwhileLorca’swork,orsomeofitatleast,

haseffectivelyenteredtheBritishandAmericantheatricalcanon,thereis
stillasensethatLorcaonstagecanbeproblematic,thatunderlyingallthat
humanpassionandstageenergytherelinger,respectively,theparallel
difficultiesofaresidualculturalopacityandanembarrassinglevelofmelo-
dramainperformance.Anumberoftheatrepractitionershavespokenof
suchdifficulties–indeed,Lorcahimselfhadalreadyreferredtowhathe
viewedastheuntranslatableessenceofhistheatre(see,forexample,Clif-
ford,1996).

Centraltotheauthor’sperceptionofhisownuntranslatability

wasundoubtedlyhisawarenessthatthedramaticactionsandstage
languageofhisplaysarevivified–thatis,maderealintermsofaudience
experience–throughwhatChomskywoulddescribeasanencyclopaedia
ofextralinguisticreference,inthecaseofLorcaoneofunusualintensityand
coherence–‘agrammarofimages’,inStephenSpender’sphrase(see
Binding,1985:51).Routinely,ofcourse,thisgrammar,thisencyclopaedia,
isreducedonstagetothesimpleadjectivalappealofanAndalusiantourist
guide,asdirectorsmaraudintotheidiomandstyleofflamencoinorderto
plundertheresomethingoftheexoticothernessthattheyperceiveatthe
heartofLorca’swork.

Inmanyways,thisconstitutesinitselfanactof

translation,thistimeintoanEnglish-languagetheatreculture,ofapercep-
tion,stillwidespreadeveninSpain,thatthereisafolksyelementtoLorca,
thathisworkisrootedinandreflectsapopulartraditionthatissomehow
timelessly and quintessentially Spanish (see, for instance, Round, 1997).

AnyresistancetotranslationthatcharacterisesLorca’stheatre,however,

derivesmorefromthewayinwhichheattemptstonegotiatehisplaysinto,
andthenbeyond,thehorizonofexpectationsofhisaudience,thanfrom
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crucialnotionofthe‘horizonofexpectations’hasalwaysseemedtometo
markthepointwheretranslationtheorycoincideswiththeoriesofreception
(see,especially,Pavis,1992:142).ThecomplicityuponwhichLorca’splays
dependfortheirimpactiscarefullycraftedbyawriterwhowasalso
acknowledgedasagreatdirector(forexample,inJoséMonleón’sIntroduc-
tioninhis1971Spanish-languageeditionofBodasdesangre,hedrawsupon
thetestimonyoftheatrepractitionerswhoworkedwithLorca).Lorca’s
playsinvitetheiraudiencestoimaginealternativestothesocialandmoral
codesoftheday,anactofimaginativecollaborationthatmaybeenabled
onlythroughtheconstructionofastageworldthatshiftsacrosstheterrain
oftheknown,therecognisable,intothechallengingrealmoftheunfamiliar
orthetaboo.Hisfrequently-quotedviewoftheatreas‘aschoolforlaughter
andtears,anopenforumwherewecanputoldormisguidedmoralitiesto
thetestandembodyinlivingexamplestheeternaltruthsofthehuman
heart’isbasedonthreecentralbutinterconnectednotionsofdramaturgy.

First,thereistheideathatthetheatrecan,andshould,re-orientatethespec-
tatortowardswhatheconsideredtobethemostpreciousfulfilmentofour
being,theinstinctuallife.Second,theatrehasacentralroleinthedebate
betweentraditionalismandthemodernthenraginginSpain.Lorcawas
writingatatimewhenSpainwasslowlyemergingfromthecocoonthatwas
self-imposedinthewakeofthedisastrouswaragainsttheUSAin1898,a
timewhentheparamountaxisofnationaldivision–theinternalcolonisation
frequentlyrepresentedinabbreviatedformasthe‘TwoSpains’–was
coalescingincreasinglyaroundthecharacteristicsofMarxistideological
conflict.Oldhistoricalcertaintiesanddominantculturalmodeswerebeing
increasinglychallengedasnewideassweptinfromabroad,andthroughout
hisworkLorcaimplicitlyinterrogatesthemeaningofSpanishness,exam-
ininghowingrainedcodesofbehaviourandsetsofassumptionsshapethe
contours of an imprisoning identity.

ThethirdelementofLorca’sdramaturgy–theideaof‘puttingtothe

test’-istheonethatconnectsmostcompletelywithperformance.ForLorca,
performanceisacrucible–peopleoftenrefertothe‘pressure-cooker’or
‘hothouse’feelofhistheatre,intermsbothofthecharacteristicentrapment
ofitsprotagonistsandoftheemotionalcomplicitythatthisentrapmentis
designedtoexciteinitsspectators.Inthissense,performanceisthekeyto
animpactthatderivesfromemotionalresponse,animpactwhosegoalisto
extendanddeepenthespectator’sexperienceofsourcesofpersonaland
societalrepression.Lorca’sviewoftheatreas‘poetrythatstandsupfrom
thepageandbecomeshumanand,indoingso,ittalksanditcriesandit
weepsanditdespairs’workswithinthisconcept,becauseitisthroughsuch
emotionally-chargedlanguagethattheatremaymakewhatisinvisibleor
repressedinsocietyvisibleonstage.

Itisthemarkedcontrastbetweenthis

poetryandtheflintier,hard-edgedspeechesthatspeakofself-controland

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conformismthatformsthecentralaxisofthelanguageuniverseofLorca’s
theatre.Onlyifthetranslatorisabletore-createmeaningfullyandcoherently
thesystemofculture-specificreferenceswithintheframeworkofthe
linguistictensionsthatinhabitthisuniversewillheorshebeabletore-create
inturnthecomplicitythatLorcasoughtforhisplaysinperformance.Much
attentionhasbeenpaidtotheneedtogettheseculture-specificreferences
‘right’,butinthefinalanalysis,ifLorca’splaysaretoretaintheirfullimpact
onstageinEnglish,thentranslatorsforperformancemusttranslatethe
plays’potentialforperformance(seeforexample,Edwards,1998).For,in
thecaseofGarcíaLorca,thatpotentialisthelynchpinofhisthinkingasan
artistwhobelievedthattheatre–andmostparticularlytragedy–hadits
own particular contribution to make to social dynamics.

ForasLorcameditated,asallsignificantplaywrightsdo,uponthenature

ofaudiencecomplicity,hedevelopedthroughhispracticeaperformance
theory,attheheartofwhichliestheperformanceofemotion,ofwhatSeamus
Heaneycalledthehuman‘non-codified’.Insimilarterms,PaulValéry,apoet
muchadmiredbyLorca,insistsontheinescapablecommitmentofpoetry,
whoseimages‘neparlentjamaisquedechosesabsentes’,tothenegationofour
mostingrainedcodes.ThisisexactlywhatLorca’srichlyimagisticdrama
achieves.Itdisruptstheestablisheddiscourseofbehaviourismwithforceful
expressionsoftheintimateself,oftherighttobe,beyondtheimperativesof
bothChurchandgroup.TherealartisticachievementofLorca’stheatreisthe
speakingofwhatMarcusewastocall30yearslatera‘non-reified’language,
awayofcommunicatingtheintimatedeniedasanabsencebothdeeplyfelt
intheindividuallifeandthedefiningrealityofapublicspacedelimitedby
thespiritofconservatismandnegation(cf.Johnston,1999).

Writingata

timeofincreasingsocialandpoliticalpolarisation,Lorca’stheatrebecomes
asiteofculturalresistancetosimplisticpolitics,withitsaccompanying
social weapon of crude opprobrium.

Writing from the Margins

Importantly,Lorca’sisagazefromthemargins.Asagaywriter,he

obligeshisaudiencestoundertakeajourneyintotherecognitionand
acceptanceofalternativeordeniedexpressionsofsexuality,bothasataboo
areaofpubliclifeandasametaphoricalwayofapprehendingthewiderfrus-
trationsandlimitationsofthesocio-politicalrealm.Inhisplays,accordingly,
LorcadisruptsthelinguisticnolessthantheculturalcodesofSpanish,
excitingculturalexogamyinhisdramatisationofrecognisableformsand
modesofthehostileothernessthathehimselfexperiencedinhislifebothas
an individual and as a cultural figure (cf. Gibson, 1989).

InArtandAgency:AnAnthropologicalTheory,AlfredGell(1998:97)notes

that‘worksofart,images,iconsandthelikehavetobetreated,inthe

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contextofananthropologicaltheory,asperson-like;thatissourcesofand
targetsforsocialagency’.Ifthisobservationistobeusefultothetranslator,
itisasconfirmationoftherecognitionthattranslatorsareconcernedwiththe
contextofapieceofwriting,itsexplanatorybackground,aswellasitsinte-
rior.Translatorsofplaysforperformanceworkdependmoreonasenseof
linguisticanthropology,withitscrucialsenseoftheculturalembeddedness
oflanguage,itsrootednessinhistoricalprocess,thanontheexegesisofnew
criticalformalism.Itisatthispointthattheperformancetranslator’sanal-
ysisofthesourcetext(ST)differsmostsharplyfromthatofthelinguist,
whomovesinwardsintothetext,examiningits‘interanimationofwords’–
inRichards’phrase–asthedefiningfeatureofanunchangingliterary
status(forcontemporaryanalysesofRichards’sviewsontranslation,see
Johnston,2004:1–14).But,intheatre,itisimportanttorememberthatsuch
interanimationoccursmostcompletelynotonthepage,butintheair
betweenstageandauditorium.WolfgangIser(Budick&Iser,1996)and
(Iser,2000)describesthe‘liminal’interculturalspacethatisopenedupby
theactoftranslationasapre-requisiteof,orframeworkfor,that‘third
space’inwhichthetranslationmayoperateasatext.Intermsoftheatre,
bothliminalandthirdspacesarecreatedsimultaneouslybythedynamics
ofperformance–inotherwords,thenewplaystillfunctions(dangerously,
subversively)asitmightwithinitsownculture.Butitsstatusasatranslated
text(whichbeforetheperformancebeginsishighlightedtotheaudiencein
posters,publicitymaterial,etc.)bringsdifferenceandnewpossibilitiesfor
meaning.Itisherethatthespectator’simaginationismostpowerfully
engaged.Ratherthanapproachingthetextasaproductthatisinternally
fixed,thetranslatorhastheopportunitytorecreatesomethingofthetext’s
original purchase on the imagination, its cultural ‘work’, its ‘utility’.

Thisideaofutilityisofaddedimportanceinaperformanceartsuchas

theatre.Anyculturalartefactmaybereadasanexteriorisationofartistic
identity,inGell’s(1998:250)phrase‘aplacewhereagency“stops”and
assumesvisibleform’.Inotherwords,theparticularity,forexample,ofa
theatretextisinseparablefromthewayinwhichthattextexteriorises,or
performs,theartisticprojectofitsauthor.Indeed,inthecaseoftheatre,this
performancealreadytakesplaceinaspacethatisitselfhighlysensitisedto
therelationshipbetweenpersonhoodandagency,aspacewhereperfor-
manceisdefinedbythehereandnow.Toputitsuccinctly,thetranslatorof
playsiscruciallyconcernedwithenablingaheavilycontextualisedcultural
producttofunctionwithinanotherequallyheavilycontextualisedenviron-
ment.RichardJacquemondemphasisestheimportanceofthetranslator’s
multiple contextual awareness in such an enterprise:

Translationisnotonlytheintellectual,creativeprocessbywhichatext
writteninagivenlanguageistransferredintoanother.Rather,likeany

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humanactivity,ittakesplaceinaspecificsocialandhistoricalcontext
thatinformsandstructuresit.Inthecaseoftranslation,theoperation
becomesdoublycomplicatedsince,bydefinition,twolanguagesand
thus two cultures and societies are involved. (Jacquemond, 1992: 139)

Inthiscontemplationofculturaltransfer,Gell’sparallelbetween

personhoodandidentity,ontheonehand,andperformanceandcultureon
theother,canbefurtherdeveloped.DwightConquergood’sdescriptionof
cultureasan‘unfoldingperformativeinventioninsteadofreifiedsystem’
emphasisesthisinterplaybetweenthepersonandbroaderculturalrealities
(discussedinCarlson,1996:190–4).Humanpatternsofactivity,andthe
valuesunderpinningthem,arereinforcedorchallengedwhentheselfis
performedtotheotherwithinaknowncontext.Thisistheessentialpraxisof
culture.Performance–inparticular,theperformanceoftheatre–implies,in
thewordsofMarvinCarlson,‘aself-consciousnessaboutdoingandre-doing
onthepartofbothperformersandspectators’(1996:especially,195–9).
Lorca’sconvictionthattheatreisacrucibleforculturalself-examination
wherewereflectuponanddefineourselves,whereweimaginealternatives
andtesttheirpotentialtruthsthroughperformance,workswhollywithin
thisconceptofculturalutility.Accordingly,Lorca’stheatrefunctionsasa
performativeconsciousnessthatreflectsandchallengesspecifichistorical
relations.Inotherwords,itisanactofperformancewhoseprimaryfunction
istheexplorationofselfandother,oftheworldasexperiencedandofpossi-
bilitiesalternatetothatexperience.Ifthetranslatorchoosestoignorethe
culturalutilityimplicitinthatact,heorshemaywellproduceanacceptable
textinEnglish,butintermsoftheatreitwillbeaventriloquisingtext:one
thatisrecognisablyLorca,whichperhapsenjoysthestatusaccordedto
suchatext,butthat,inthefinalanalysis,willfailtoconnectintimately–or
memorably – with its audience.

The Practice of Theatre

Allofthisformswhatmaybetermedtheintraculturaldimensionof

Lorca’stheatre,howitfunctions–ormoreexactly,functioned–withinits
owntimeandplace.Thekeyquestionhere,ofcourse,istheextenttowhich
thetranslatorcan–orshould–attempttoreplicatesuchculturalutility.
Afterall,wecannotpretendthatplayssuchasBloodWedding,YermaandThe
HouseofBernardaAlbahavethesameimpactinperformanceinSpaintoday
astheydid70orsoyearsago.Patternsofactivityandthevaluesthat
underpinthemhavepatentlychanged,andwiththemtheculturalutilityof
theplayshasalsoevolved.Theculturalutilityofthetext,thewayinwhicha
pieceofwritingengageswithitsoriginatingculture,maywelldevelopas
cultureandsocietyevolveand,inthatevolution,textsandartefactsmayof
courseacquiredifferentsetsofmeaningsandsignificance.Moreover,inthe

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caseoftheatre,adevelopingperformancetraditiongivestheplayasenseof
accumulatedrichness,onethatiscloselylinkedtothefetishisingofthe
authorasaname,a‘draw’.InthecaseofLorca,thisisdangerouslytruegiven
thevividcircumstancesthatsurroundhislifeanddeath.Itisevidencedin
theunusuallylargenumberofplays,filmsanddevisedpiecesthatdepictor
drawuponhislife.Ofcourse,Lorcaasaculturalbrandismuchmore
acceptedintheEnglish-languagetheatricalmainstreamthanwasthecase,
say,20yearsago.Buthisstatusasa‘dramatistofpoetryandpassion’isnot
entirelyhelpfultoanyofthepractitioners–includingtranslators–who
haveattemptedtomakehisplaysworkinEnglish,onpageoronstage.
Lorcaisawriterofdissonances,creatingastylethatisnotonlyrichwith
individualandsocialcolour,butthatisalsoexpressiveoftheinstinctual
vitalityandperformativeenergythatwill,inhistheoryofperformance,
highlightthenatureofidentityasasiteofconflict.WritingprovidedLorca
withhisownliminalspaceinwhichheexploredboththecentraltensions
betweensocialandpersonalbeing,andthedarkerrecessesofthepersonal.If
thestagelanguagedoesnotrenderpreciselytheselocationsanddislocations
ofidentity,theproductionsmaywelllurchintoself-consciouspoeticisation,
melodramaorsheerlinguisticconfusion.Thesearecertainlyallcharges
thathavebeenlevelledatperformedversionsofLorca’splays.Inorderto
ensuretheinter-animationofwordsandculturalidentitywithinthe
crucibleoftheperformancespace,thetranslatormustundertakeavery
precisemapping–orthroughrouting–oftherelationshipbetween
situation,characterinteractionandindividualverbalstrategies.Other-
wise,asthelanguageofLorca’splaysbecomesreifiedas‘Lorquian’,the
playslosetheircapacitygenuinelytomove,toprovokeandtoshock,and
thespectatorisdeliveredintoaworldofremorselessculturalpasticheand
ventriloquised passions.

Asalwaysoccurswithtranslation,ofcourse,thereareanumberofstra-

tegicchoicesthattranslatorshavetomake.Sometranslatorsmaywell
choosetoworksolelyatthelevelofthewords,andindeedthereare
severalpublishedtranslationsthatarewrittenwithalllinguisticcarebut
whoseimpact,intermsofthesortofengagementthatgreattheatre
requires,isthatofartefactsfromatimecapsule.Itcouldbeargued,of
course,thatthereisadirectparallelherewiththewaythatoriginalsthem-
selvesage,thatthisistheconsequenceofclassicstatus.Buttranslationcan
–andarguablyshould–freeitselffromthis.Theactoftranslatingisless
aboutre-affirmingthecanonicalstatusoftheoriginalthanwithre-
animatingtheplayanew.AsWillisBarnstone,forexample,hasnoted,
‘translation,aswithalltranscriptionandreadingoftexts,createsadiffer-
ence’(Barnstone,1993:18;seealsoVenuti,1992:7).Suchdifferencecanbe
assertedthroughcarefulhistoricalattentiontotheoriginal,notwithany
textualhistoricisminmind,butwiththegoalofre-creatingthepowerof

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theplayinitsoriginalperformance.Thetranslator’staskisanalogousto
thatofthedirector,inthisasinotheraspectsoftheirwork:toreturnfresh-
nesstotheplaybynegotiatingtheconnectionsthattheplaysoughtto
makewithitsoriginalaudience–itsculturalutility–intothe‘lifeworlds’
ofspectatorshereandnow.Thisisoneofthereasonswhyperformance
translationsdatesorapidly,andcertainlywhytheyshouldbediscarded
withouttoomuchheart-searching.Theycreateaconnectionbetweenthe
textandthepresentmoment,inthesamewaythatagoodperformance
shoulddo.Theactoftranslationisasvividandastransitoryastheactof
performance,becausebothareconcernedwithamovingtarget,therecep-
tiveconsciousnessofanaudienceofhereandnow.Oncethattargetisout
ofrange,however,thetranslationisfitonlyforthetime-capsule(see,for
example,Upton:2000).

Thekeywordaboveis‘negotiating’.NewtrendsinShakespearean

criticism,forexample,confirmthatforeignaudiences’imaginativecollabo-
rationwiththeperformancemaybemosteffectivelyengagedwhenthe
playislocatedwithinaculturalintersticethatissimultaneouslyfamiliar
anddefamiliarised.Inmanyways,theinfiniteShakespearesthatinhabit
culturalcrossingsbetween,forexample,JapaneseManzaiandthefastand
furiousword-gamesofLove’sLaboursLostorSouthernAfricanpoliticsand
thepolitickingclansofJuliusCaesar,areanantidotetotheglobalisedclassic
productdistributedfromtheculturalthemeparkthatisStratford-upon-
Avon.Indeed,itmaywellbethat,asEnglish-speakingaudiences’own
abilitytounderstandShakespeare’slanguagecontinuestoerode,thefuture
ofvividandmeaningfulShakespeareproductionslieswithinthecultural
andpost-colonialre-animationsoftranslatorsabroad–see,forexample,
thecollectionofessaysfrominternationalcontributorsinIlhadodesterro36,
editedbyJoséRobertoO’Shea(1999).Arosebyanyothername,perhaps,
butthereistheclearlydiscerniblepragmaticsoftheatrereceptioninthis.A
playrealisesitspotentialformeanings,whetherauthoriallyintendedor
not,throughtheinteractionbetweenthefictitiousworldonstageandthe
imaginativecollaborationofthespectatorwholivesinthehereandnow,
Unamuno’scelebratedandveryreal‘manoffleshandbone’.Thishybrid
modelofplaytext,andinparticulartheliminalspaceopenedupthrough
performanceofsuchatext,permitsthenewaudiencetogainaccesstothe
assumptionsandthesecretsthattheplaysharedwithitsoriginalaudience.
Butthegrantingofthataccessmustbeequallyellipticalorelsetheplay
courtstheriskofdidacticismononehandandstylisticnormalisationonthe
other.Atranslatorforthestageis,inthatsenseatleast,awriterforperfor-
mance.

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Translating Performance

Viewedfromthisperspective,thetranslatoriscentrallyconcernedat

eachmomentandstageoftheprocesstoensurethattheintraculturalfunc-
tionoftheplayistranslated,ornegotiated,intothereceivingculture.Lorca
hasaculturalpredilectionforatheatreofritualandspectacleratherthan
oneofrationallyexpoundedargument.HeisclosertoYeatsthanIbsenin
thatsenseand,inaveryYeatsianway,hisperformancetranslatorsmust
findastagelanguagethatspeaksbothofthepassionwithwhichherepre-
sentstheassumptionsandmovementsofhissociety,andoftheprecision
thatgraftsthespeechofhischaractersintothelivingwoodoftheirculture.
Thisisthethroughrouting,referredtoearlier,alongwhichthetranslator
leadsindividualcharacterstrategiestothepointswheretheyintersectmost
powerfullywithbroaderculturalrealities.Itisonlyatthatmoment–when
stagelanguagebecomesreal,whenitcanbeprocessedbythespectatoras
naturally-occurringlanguage–thatthespectatorisprovidedwitha
linguisticframeworkforfullyidentifyingandunderstandingthedeep-
eningandquickeningmomentsofthedramawhenlanguagemovesfrom
theplaneofthenaturallyoccurringtothatofthestylisticallyre-arranged.
Toputitinthemostdirectway,thetemplateofcommunicativecompetence
thatallnativespeakerspossessmustformthebasisforwhatever
dramaturgicalremouldingoflanguagetakesplaceinthetranslation.This
isthelinguisticunderpinningforwhateverforeignising,stylisticor
idiolecticelementsthetranslatormaywishtoinject,maintainorre-create.
Itisanecessarypre-conditionwhich,ifnotmet,mayjeopardisetherecep-
tionofthenewtext’sotherness.This–itsculturalvoice–nowrunstherisk
ofbeingmisunderstoodand/ordismissedasmereconfusionor,inthe
specificcaseofLorca,asexcessivelymelodramatic.Allofthevarious
actions–culturalandlinguistic–thatvivifyLorca’sdramahaveasingular
coherenceintheoriginalplays,allcontributetotheoverallthrustofwhat
theplaysareaboutinperformance,allarepartofacomplicitythatisboth
an aesthetic pre-requisite of performance and a cultural project.

WehavealreadyreferredtoLorca’ssystemicpatternsofimagery,with

theircharacteristicallypowerfulinterplaybetweenanimateandinanimate
elementsdrawn,inverylargepart,fromtheeverydayworldofruralSpain.All
ofthiscanbetreatedwiththesametacticsthattranslatorsnormallyusefor
culture-specificitems,allowingforwhateverbalancebetweenoriginatingand
receivingculturesthatisdeemedappropriatefortheproduction.Butitis
importantthatthetranslatordoesnotallowLorca’sencyclopaediaofrefer-
encetopushtheprocesstowardsamerelylinguisticexercise.Theaimof
Lorca’stheatre–arguably,perhaps,ofperformanceingeneral–isnotto
fosterthegrowthofknowledge,buttore-frameexperience.Thismeansthat
translationoftheculture-specificitemsofLorca’soriginalisatleastas

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equallygovernedbyrhetoricalandstylisticstrategiesasbyanyexternal
referencing.

Onemuch-discussedexample,takenfromthemostfrequentlyperf-

ormedandtranslatedofLorcaplays,Bodasdesangre(BloodWedding),will
illustratethis.Intheopeningsceneoftheplay,theMothercurses‘lanavaja,
lanavaja...[...]ylasescopetasylaspistolasyelcuchillomáspequeño,yhastalas
azadasylosbieldosdelaera’asitemsthatallrepresentdangerintheworldof
men(1980:566).ThisistranslatedalmostliterallyinthefirstPenguintrans-
lationoftheplay:‘Knives,knives[...]Andgunsandpistolsandthesmallest
littleknife–andevenhoesandpitchforks’(Graham-Luján&O’Connell,
1961:33).TedHughes(1996:1)has:‘Theknife,theknife![...]Andgunsand
pistols,eventhetiniestlittleknife,evenpitchforksandmattocks’.Brendan
Kennelly(1996:11)widensthecurseto‘Theknife,theknife.[...]Andthe
curseofGodonguns,machineguns,rifles,pistols...andknives,eventhe
smallestknife...andscythesandpitchforks’.Inhis1980Spanish-language
editionoftheplay,thedistinguishedHispanistHerbertRamsdennotesthat
thefarmimplementsLorcamentions‘takeboththeirbasicmeaningand
theiremotiveresonancesfromaculturalcomplexdifferentfromourown’
andputsforwardanumberofpossibletranslations–‘drag-hoe’,‘pick-axe’,
‘winnowing-fork’,‘pitch-fork’–allofwhich,heargues,willpermitEnglish
readers(ofhispublishededition)toprocessthetextfromwithinafamiliar
context(quotedanddiscussedbyHickey,1998:50).LeoHickeytakesan
opposing view:

...atranslatorcanattempteithertobringtheSTtothereader,withallits
locutionary,illocutionaryandperlocutionaryimport,whereverthe
readermaybe,orelsetakethereader,completewithanybaggageof
culturalorlinguisticbackgroundthatmaybeattachedtosucha
person,intotheworld–thelinguisticworld–oftheST.AndIam
suggestingthatperhapsinthecaseofthesethreeplays[BloodWedding,
Yerma,TheHouseofBernardaAlba]thetacticoftakingthereaderintothe
ST world should be considered. (Hickey, 1998: 50)

Butwhatisgoingonhereintermsofperformance?Giventhefactthat

theMother’sinvectivecomesasthefirstmomentofheightenedtensionin
theplay(previouslywehavehadonly11shortspeechesofdeliberate
domesticbanality)theseareclearlykeylines,andreallyhavetobeviewed
fromtheoverarchingperspectiveoftheplay–itsenergy,itsdominant
motifs,anditsmeanings–asawhole.Moreover,thetranslatorofdramafor
performancedoeswelltobearinmindthat,whateverwemightconsiderto
betheindivisibleunitofdramaticconstruction(theindividualspeechor
theindividualexchange),itisstampedwithpurpose.Itisacellularunit
thatcarrieswithinittheshapeandforceoftheplayinitsentirety.Ifthat
cellularstructureofdramaticwritingisignored,thereisarealriskthatthe

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playwilllosecoherence,onthepageandonstagealike,andwillbeexperi-
encedinapiecemealandde-energisedway.SotheemotionalactionofBlood
Weddingbegins,asitwillend,withanimageoftheknife,creatingasenseof
violence that overhangs the play like a damoclean sword.

‘Navaja’,‘knife’,isacontinuallyrecurringsigninLorca’spoetry,plays

anddrawings,taken,asaresomanyofhismotifsandicons,fromareality
thatisbothobservedandpartofarecognisedculturaltradition.Theword
isinvestedherewithanelementalforcethatisoperativebothwithinthe
experienceofthecharacterherselfandwithinthecollectiveimaginationof
theaudience.IfoneweretranslatingtheforceofthewordintoanIrishsitu-
ation,thenitsdirectequivalentwouldbethegun.Knifeandgunareboth
readilyintelligiblecorrelativesforacertaintypeofsocialandhistorical
violence,bothpotentagentsandharbingersofadestructionwhosecauses
areknowntoall.Inotherwords,thefirstmentionofthe‘navaja’,leadingas
itdoesintothislistofdangerousweaponsandimplements,createsa
momentofexpectationandofrecognition;theaudiencebeginstoconfront
thetragedyofarelentlesschainofcauseandeffectthatitrecognisesas
beingitsowntrauma.ItisthisactofcomplicitousrecognitionthattheIrish
poetBrendanKennellyseekstore-createbybroadeninghisreferencesto
include‘rifles’and‘machineguns’.Indeed,hissenseoftheparallel
betweentheviolentdivisionsofIrishhistoryandthiscommunitythatbays
foritsownbloodinLorca’splay,isreinforcedbythenewlineswithwhich
hehashisversionend.Intheclosinglinesoftheplay,theMother’srefer-
encesto‘thisblood-hauntedplace’andher‘dreamofpeace’,withtheir
overtonesoftheNorthernIrishpeaceprocess(theplaywasperformedin
1996),bringhisversionfullcircle,andre-createasenseoftheculturalutility
oftheLorcaoriginalwithinKennelly’sowncommitmentasanIrishwriter
(Kennelly,1996).

Clearly,however,itwouldbeimpossibletotranslate

‘navaja’as‘gun’,andKennellyissensitivetothefactthatoneoftheprin-
cipalstrandsintheplay’sgrammarofimageryisthatofimagesofcutting,
pinning,slicingandpiercing.Moreover,while,admittedly,itmayspeakof
asimilarmacho-styleresponsetohistoricaldislocation,thegundoesnot
havethespecificallyphallicovertonesoftheknife,andthesexualconnota-
tionsofthedeathofthetwomeninActThreewouldbelost.Inthispartic-
ularcase,KennellypointsupconnectionsbetweenLorca’sproject,andhis
own,withoutallowingtheplaytobefloodedwithaspuriousIrishness.The
spectator’simaginationislocatedpreciselywhereitshouldbe:notin
Hickey’sAndalusiaorinthecomfortablefamiliarityofRamsden’s
England,butinthetheatre,theliminalspacebetweenstageandaudito-
rium, where it belongs.

Havingstartedwiththemostemotionallyloadedmotif,the‘navaja’,the

Spanishcanaffordtobringinlesselementalitems–the‘azadas’andthe
‘bieldosdelaera’.Clearly,theissuethatthetranslatorrequirestonegotiate

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hereiswhetherthespecificityofreferenceshouldberetainedinorder,
presumably,tomarkthedifferenceoftheplay’ssetting(andimplying,in
theprocess,thatthisisthesortofthingthatgoesonintheSpanishcountry-
side),orwhetherthereferentsshouldbestrengthenedinordertoreinforce
theenergysurroundingtheknife.Thisissue,moreover,cannotbeconsid-
eredinisolationfromtheculturalplayoflanguagethatgivesLorca’splays
whatKennelly(1996:11)callstheirqualityof‘rhythmicalandemotional
revolution’.Theircharacteristiclinguisticactions–rhythm/repetition,the
useofanticipatorypoetics,kinetics,kinesics,languagethatissimulta-
neouslylocatedanddislocated–allneedtobeconsideredasaninforming
aspectoftheoverallprocessofculturalnegotiationsothattheplaycanbe
understoodwithoutbeingnormalised.Stagelanguagedoesnotsimply
mean:itdoes.Indeed,thisissurelywhat‘performability’isallabout–
givingactorslinesthatarespeakableandthat,atthesametime,recreatethe
stylisticmarkingandculturalsignificanceoftheoriginal.

Lorcaalmost

certainlychose‘azadas’fromthebewilderingarrayofruralcuttingtoolsat
hisdisposalbecauseofitsassonantrelationshipwiththepreceding‘hasta
las’and,morecrucially,withtheword‘navaja’itself.Moreover,thefalling
rhythmof‘losbieldosdelaera’allowstheactorinquestiontovarythe
emotionalstressofthephrasesothatitendsonanoteofapparenthelpless-
nessinthefaceofomnipresentdestruction.Intermsofsoundpatterns,
therefore,thespecificityoftheseitemsisexpendable.Myownsolution
emphasises the rhythmical nature of the language:

Ihateknives...[...]Knives,guns...sicklesandscythes...

(Johnston,

1988/2003)

The Truths of Performance

Whenversion-writers,ortranslators,workasactualpractitionersin

drama,theyengageinprocessesthatarebothintra-andinterlingual,and
intra-andintercultural.Theseareallprocessesthatmovewithinandacross
thevariouslanguagesthat,together,constitutethediscourseorgrammar
ofperformance.Anditisbyanchoringtheseprocessestotheoverarching
truth,ortruths,oftheplaythat,ultimately,theperformabilityofthepiece
willbesecured.Thesetruths(inthesense,ofcourse,ofthetruthsofperfor-
manceratherthananyaxiomaticstatements)maywellconnectdirectly
withtheexperienceofouraudiencestoday.Lorca’sawarenessthat
women’ssexualityisexpectedtooperatewithinadifferentsetofexpecta-
tionsfromthatofmen,forexample,isaprimeexampleofafocusof
ongoingrelevance.

AndwithoutdoubtLorca’semphasisontheextended

imperativesofindividualitywerekeyinassertingtherelevanceofhiswork
inEnglishatatimewhenradicalThatcherismwasconcernedtore-define
theindividualintermsofaggressiveacquisitiveness.Wherespecificarticu-

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lationsofsuchoverarchingelements,however,comeacrossasdated,
confusedortooembeddedwithinthetraditionsoftheoriginatingculture,
thenthetranslatormustsimplydecidehowbesttoservetheoverall
purposeofthiscrucialaspectofthetext.Suchtacticalresponsesmaywell
varywithintheambitoftheindividualtextsothattheinterestsbothof
preservingculturalspecificityandofestablishingculturaldiversityare
served.Inapostmodernworld,thesurfacetextureofthetranslationisself-
aware, an explicit site for creative tensions and intercultural encounter.

Intheheavily-texturedtheatreofGarcíaLorca,itwouldbepossibleto

citenumerousexamplesofsuchculture-specificnegotiations.Indeed,
manyreviewersandessayistshavemadeittheirbusinesstocompare
workingsolutionswiththeirown‘perfectunderstanding’ofthemeaning
ofthewordsinquestion(thephraseis,ofcourse,Richards’s)(Gentzler,
2001:15;Johnston,2004:1–4).Suchcomparisonsareinevitablypartialinas
farastheyignoretheoverarchingperformancecontextinwhichthepartic-
ularimageorutteranceisembedded.LetustakeanexamplefromLacasade
BernardaAlba(TheHouseofBernardaAlba).Intheclimacticsceneoftheplay,
theembitteredandhugelyrepressedMartirioconfessesherloveforthe
overpoweringPepeelRomanotoherwaywardsisterAdelawiththe
following:

Yes!Letmesayitwithouthidingmyhead.Yes!Mybreast’sbitter,
burstinglikeapomegranate.Ilovehim.(Graham-Luján&O’Connell,
1961: 198)

ThisactofstraighttalkingburststhehouseofBernardaAlbawideopen,

leadingdirectlytoAdela’srebellionandsubsequentsuicide.Itisameta-
phorofexpressionistintensity,ofascreamforcedthroughsilenceand
denial.Inhisversionoftheplay(producedatBelfast’sLyricTheatrein
1991),FrankMcGuinnessoptstochangetheburstingpomegranateintoa
sourapple,whileatthesametimeretainingtheoriginalsettingofrural
Spain(unlikethespectacularlyunsuccessfulversionofCharabancTheatre
Companywho,in1993,transferredtheactiontoCountyCavan).Itcouldbe
arguedthatsomeofthespecificsarelostintheexchange:theredpulpy
fleshofthepomegranate,likeableedingheart,theseedsthatspillout
(thoughweneedtobecarefulwiththisoneastheconnotativedimensionof
seedsinEnglishcannotbemappedwhollyontotheSpanish).Ontheother
hand,theovertonesofsournessthatMcGuinnessbrings(pomegranates
decayintoasicklysweetness)are,intheirownright,apowerfulimageof
thehumanheartlockedaway.Nomatterwhereweplacethetranslationon
theloss/compensationaxis,onethingremainsclear:McGuinnesshas
chosentoreplaceanexoticmetaphor,arrestinginitsownway,withone
thatdrivestheenergyofthesceneforward,andwhichiswhollyconsonant

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withtheplay’scentralwarning:repressionleadstoexplosion.And,in
terms of style, the writing is no less overt, no less marked.

Inthefinalanalysis,therefore,thereisrarelyaneedtoundertakea

whole-scaletranspositionofLorca’sculturalcontext.Iftheversion-writer
electsthatoption,however,therewillbesignificantimplicationsforthe
amountofdetailthatdemandstobere-castinorderforthenewplayto
workasaversionoftheoriginal–itwaspreciselyinthisregardthatthe
Charabancproductionreferredtoabovefellshort(Farrell,1996:52–3).

Morelikely,thetranslatorwillseektoopenwindowsintothecultural
utilityoftheoriginalandre-createitscapacitytoengagebyidentifyingthe
overarchingtruthsofperformance–whichactorswillbesearching
endlesslyforthroughouttherehearsalprocessanyway–andbyensuring
thatthesearebothservedby,andintimatelyconnectedto,eachandevery
oneofthecellularunitsofspeechthatconstitutethem.Inthatsense,the
translatorwritesneitherwhollyforthestageorthepage,butfortheair,the
liminalspacebetweenactorandspectatorinwhichLorca’splaysachieve
their full capacity for darkness and danger.

Onefinalexample,takenfromDoñaRositalasoltera(DoñaRosita,theSpin-

ster),writtenin1935,givesaclearideaofthisliminalspacewheretheinvis-
ibleinsocietyismadevisible.IntheoppressiveVictorianworldofagloomy
Granadahouse,ayoungwomaniswithering.Onthesurface,asNicholas
Round has observed:

itwouldbehardtopreserveverymuchofthatplay,ofitstensions,
necessities,compulsions–letalonethatextraordinarysymphonyof
kitschculturalreferencesinthesecondact,whichmakessucha
wonderfulcomicepisode–ifyousimplyreplacedthoseassumptions
withtheassumptionsofpresent-dayBritain,andre-wrotethetransla-
tion accordingly. (Doggart & Thompson, 1999: 258)

Thisisundoubtedlythecase,buttheemotionaltruththattheactorwill
probablydrawupontoauthenticateherperformanceisthatofawoman
whohasbeenbetrayed,andthatcoreexperiencewillservethetranslatorin
hisorherre-creationofthatsenseofaplacewhereagencyhasstoppedand
assumedvisibleformintheparalysedlifeofthisyoungwoman.The
unspokenrealityofthisparticularGenetrixisthatshehasbeencon-
demned,bothbyherownmisreadingofherfecklessfiancéandbythe
codesofhersociety,intoasexlessexistence,divorcedfromallpleasure.
Lorcafrequentlyusedservantstovoicetheunspoken,andearlyintheplay
theHousekeeperrecitesadaringtongue-twisterwhoseostensiblemeaning
is that, like nuns, she is on the go from dawn to dusk:

Siempredelcoroalcañoydelcañoalcoro;delcoroalcañoydelcañoalcoro.

(Lorca, 1980: 750)

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Butthelatentcontentitimplantsintheaudience’smind–virtuallyforces
spectatorstospeak–istheslangwordforthefemalesexualorgans.Inhis
version, John Edmunds tries this:

Sheneverstops:inandoutandroundaboutandinmylady’schamber.
(Edmunds, 1997: 176)

subsequentlyadjustingthefollowingdialoguetohavehermistress,
Rosita’s aunt, say reprovingly:

Ifyouknewwhatthatmeant,youwouldn’tsayit.(Edmunds,1999:177)

Unfortunately,whatislosthereistheimplantationoftheburstingword

intheaudience’smind,sothatthespectatorsbecomecomplicitouswiththe
forceofdesirethatislockedawayintheplay,likeahothouseflower.The
meaninghastobededucedratherthanexplodingintothespectator’s
consciousness.Moreover,thelossofreferencetotheworldofnunserodesan
importantcorrelativeforRosita’saridexistence.Anotherversionattemptsto
keepthereferentialelementsexplicitlyalive.‘Coro’referstothechoirstallsof
thechurch,and‘caño’tothefountainwherethewashingisdown.The
resulting‘fromshouttosheet,fromsheettoshout’providesagraphicillus-
trationofthelimitationsofsuchphilologicalanalysis(Graham-Luján&
O’Connell,1965:134).Notonlydoesitevokebehaviourmostunlikelyina
nun, but its own bursting word is singularly inappropriate.

Itisofcoursenotoriouslydifficulttowriteaboutperformance,either

actualorintended.Differentspectatorswillinevitablyreactinvery
differentways,carryingawaywiththemquitedistinctimpressionsoftheir
experience.Moreover,audienceswillvarycollectivelyfromplacetoplace.
ThesameproductionofShaw’sJohnBull’sOtherIslandwillpromptavery
differentaudiencereactioninBelfast’sLyricTheatrethan,forexample,in
theTricycleinLondon.Butthetranslator,likethedirector,musthavea
conscioussenseofhowaplayisintendedtoworkinperformance.That
clearlydoesnotprecludenewperspectivesopeningup.Eventheoriginal
writerpossessesnounmediatedknowledgeofwhatheorshehaswritten,
anditisimportantthatthetranslatordoesnotimposeunnecessaryclosure
intheinterpretiveanalysisthatprecedestheactoftranslationproper.Butto
translateaplayforperformancerequiresaclear-sightedviewofhowthat
playshouldworkonstage.Suchaviewmaybeillusoryoridealised;orit
mayfallshortofwhattheplayactuallyachieves,atleastforsomeofits
spectators.Buttranslatingforthestagemeanswritingtowardsaplay’s
potential to engage spectators and to charge the air in a theatre.

Notes

1.1986,the50thanniversaryofLorca’sdeath,sawthefirstdroppingofestate-held

copyrightonmostofLorca’soutput.Asubsequentchangeininternationallaw

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hasreversedthissituation,andthefactthattheestatehasnowadoptedamore
liberalattitudetowardsnewtranslationshasbeeninstrumentalinthislatterday
assertion of Lorca as a significant dramatist.

2.See,forexample,JohnClifford(1996)‘Translatingthespiritoftheplay.’Anot

untypicalassessmentoftheunease–the‘fearofpoetry’–thatLorcaproducesin
EnglishtheatrecirclescomesfromPaulHunter,directorofToldByAnIdiot
TheatreCompany.Heobserves,‘IpersonallythinkthatlotsofEnglishtheatre
practitionersarefrightenedofLorca(GerryMulgrewisanexception,ofcourse).
Thefactthatyouhavethingslikethemooncomingonstage–we’renotusedto
that.Englishactorsstillwanttoactinplayswherepeopleargueaboutthings
likewho’sleftthecardooropenorsomething’.Directors’Panel,attheOne
HundredYearsofLorcaConference,heldattheNewcastlePlayhousein1998,
published in Doggart & Thompson, 1999: 217.

3.See,especially,thetranscriptionofthedirectors’panelDoggart&Thompson,

1999.TheviewsofAlanLyddiard,artisticdirectorofNorthernStage,are
particularly interesting in this regard (Doggart & Thompson, 1999: 217–9).

4.My translation, from Lorca (Johnston, 1980: 1215).
5.Mytranslation,fromaninterviewgivenbyLorcabarelyfourmonthsbeforehis

assassination.ReproducedinLorca(Johnston,1980:1119).SeealsoM.Thompson’s
‘Poetrythatgetsupoffthepageandbecomeshuman:Poeticcoherenceand
eccentricityinLorca’stheatrem’(Doggart&Thompson,1999:67–79).Itisalso
closelylinkedtoLorca’stheoryof‘duende’;seehislecture‘Theoryandfunction
of the Duende’ in Lorca, 1960: 127–39.

6.This argument is expanded upon in David Johnston (1999: 57–66).
7.DocumentedextensivelythroughoutthebiographyofLorca:FedericoGarcía

Lorca: ALifeby I. Gibson (1989). This remains the best biography.

8.Thisisoneamongaseriesofreferencesandadditionsthatcombinetogivethe

play a distinctly Irish spin. The additional words referred to are:

Intheveryrootsofpain/Wheredeathisborn/Andlovesdies/AndIamleft/
Withthetorn,dirtyremnantsofadream,/AdreamthatImustchange,/Inthis
blood-haunted place, / Into a dream of peace. (Kennelly, 1996: 79)

9.Thisnotionisdealtwithbyanumberoftheorists.See,forexample,House

(1997).Hickey(1998:51)insists,properly,that‘markedshouldbetranslatedas
marked’However,hisargumentisweakenedbyhisreductionoftheissuetothe
simplifiedquestionof‘whetheratranslationshouldpreservethemarkednessof
theoriginalorrecontextualiseitintosomethingunmarkedinEnglish’.Thereare
complexissuessurroundingperformancereceptionandthehybridnatureofthe
translated text that need to be borne in mind here.

10.BloodWedding(1988)translatedbyDavidJohnston.Theversionquotedabove,

however,variesfromthepublishedone.Thisistakenfromascriptpreparedfor
Bruiser Theatre Company, for an Irish tour, in 2003.

11.ThispointwasmadebyArnoldWeskerin1987inhisextendedreviewofNuria

Espert’sTheHouseofBernardaAlba,translatedas‘NuriaEspertabrelaspuertasde
LondresaLorca’.Insulai37,Oct.1985:3.Intheevent,notallcriticswere
convinced.TypicalwasJohnPeter,inthetimes,whoalsosawtheplayas‘odd’.

12.See Farrell (1966: 52–3).
13.Translators’ Panelin Doggart & Thompson (1999: 258).
14.Doña Rosita la soltera(Lorca, 1980: 750).

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References

Barnstone,W.(1993)ThePoeticsofTranslation:History,Theory,Practice.NewHaven:

Yale University Press.

Binding, P.(1985)Lorca: The Gay Imagination. London: GMP.
Budick,S.andIser,W.(eds)(1996)TheTranslatabilityofCultures:Figurationsofthe

Space Between. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

Carlson, M. (1996)Performance: ACritical Introduction. London: Routledge.
Clifford,J.(1996)Translatingthespiritoftheplay.InD.Johnston(ed.)Stagesof

Translation(pp. 263–70). Bath: Absolute Classics.

Doggart,S.andThompson,M.(eds)(1999)Fire,BloodandtheAlphabet.Durham:

University of Durham Press.

Edmunds,J.(1997)Lorca,FourMajorPlays:BloodWedding,Yerma,TheHouseof

Bernarda Alba, Doòa Rosita the Spinster. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Edwards,G.(1998)TranslatingLorcaforthetheatre:BloodWedding,Yermaand

The House of Bernarda Alba.Donaire11, 15–30.

Farrell,J.(1996)Servantsofmanymasters.InD.Johnston(ed.)StagesofTranslation

(pp. 45–55)Bath: Absolute Classics.

Gell,A.(1998)ArtandAgency:AnAnthropologicalTheory.Oxford:OxfordUniversity

Press.

Gentzler,E(2001)ContemporaryTranslationTheories.Clevedon:MultilingualMatters.
Gibson, I. (1989)Federico García Lorca: ALife. London: Faber and Faber.
Graham-Luján,J.andO’Connell,R.L.(trans.)(1961)Lorca:ThreeTragedies.

Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Graham-Luján,J.andO’Connell,R.L.(trans.)(1965)FedericoGarcíaLorca:FivePlays.

Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Hickey, L. (1998) Pragmatic comments on translating Lorca.Donaire, 11, 47–60.
House, J. (1997)Translation Quality Assessment: AModel Revisited.Tübingen: Narr.
Hughes, T.(trans.) (1996)Blood Wedding. London: Faber and Faber.
Iser, W.(2000)The Range of Interpretation. New York: Columbia University Press.
Jacquemond,R.(1992)Translationandculturalhegemony:ThecaseofFrench-

ArabicTranslation.InL.Venuti(ed.)RethinkingTranslation.London:Routledge.

Johnston, D. (trans.) (1988)Blood Wedding. Sevenoaks: Hodder and Stoughton.
Johnston,D.(1999)GarcíaLorca:AfterNewYork.InS.DoggartandM.Thompson

(eds)Fire,BloodandtheAlphabet(pp.57–66).Durham:UniversityofDurhamPress.

Johnston,D.(trans.)(2003)BloodWedding.ScriptpreparedforBruiserTheatre

Company for Irish tour.

Johnston,D.(2004)Translationforthestage:Productandprocess.NUIMaynooth

Papers in Spanish and Portuguese. Maynooth: National University of Ireland

Kennelly, B. (trans.) (1996)Blood Wedding. Newcastle: Bloodaxe.
Lorca, F.G. (1980)Obras Completas. Madrid: Aguilar.
Lorca, F.G. (1960)Selected Poems(J.L. Gili, ed.). Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Monleón, J. (1971)Bodas de sangre. Madrid: Aymá.
O’Shea, J.R. (ed.) (1999)Ilha do Desterro36. São Paulo: University of São Paulo.
Round,N.(1997)Introduction.InJ.Edmunds(trans.)FourMajorPlays(pp.ix–

xxxvii) Oxford: Oxford World Classics.

Pavis,P.(1992)TheatreattheCrossroadsofCulture(L.Kruge,trans.).London:

Routledge.

Upton,C-A.(ed.)(2000)MovingTarget:TheatreTranslationandCulturalRelocation.

Manchester: St Jerome.

Venuti, L. (1992)Rethinking Translation. London: Routledge.

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Chapter 8

To Be or Not To Be (Untranslatable):
Strindberg in Swedish and English

GUNILLA ANDERMAN

Introduction

InhisGuardianreviewofarecentPeterHallproductionofMissJulie,

Michael Billington concluded:

IsuspecttherearetwowaystorevivifyStrindberg’splay.Oneisto
directit,asIngmarBergmandid,asaspecificallySwedishplayin
whicheroticfrenzyisinducedbythewhiteheatofasummernight.The
otheristorewriteit,asPatrickMarberdid,asamodernplayaboutthe
intersection of sex and class. (Billington, 2006)

Billington’sobservationsmaybeinterpretedasthestarkchoicebetween

adoptingaforeignisingoradomesticatingapproachtothetranslationof
MissJulie.Eitheryouinvitethetheatreaudiencetotravelabroad,inthiscase
toexperiencethemagicofaNordicmidsummernight,oryou‘translate’this
culturally-untranslatableeventbyrelocatingittoadifferentplace.InAfter
MissJulie,PatrickMarber’sversionoftheplaysetintheUK,theeuphoriaof
thesummernightinSwedenwaswellmatchedbytheenthusiasmthat
greetedLabour’spost-warelectionvictoryin1945.However,betweenthe
twopolar-oppositeapproachesthereisamiddleway:whilesometruly
untranslatableconceptsmaydefylinguistictransfer,othertranslation
obstaclesmaybesolved,albeitwithsomeeffort.Someoftheseproblems
arenotimmediatelyobvious:inthecaseofStrindbergtheyincludewhat
hasbeenreferredtoas‘unreliablenarration’(Törnqvist,1999)which,ifnot
interpretedcorrectly,runstheriskofaddinganelementofunwarranted
melodramaintranslation.Afurthercategoryoftranslationproblems(tobe
considered)isconcernedwithallusionstofloraandfauna,thesymbolicuse
ofwhichoftenhastobeleftintactandremainforeignandintriguingto
theatre audiences.

Linguistic ‘Untranslatability’

Asintheworkofotherplaywrights,Strindberg’scharactersspeakin

theirowndistinctivevoices.InMissJulie,Jean’suseoflanguageisoften

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moreimaginativethanthatofthemaidandhisfiancée,Kristin.Italso
containsafairsprinklingofFrenchloanwordswhichJeanuseswiththe
clearintentionoftryingtoimpressMissJulie.Theeffectisoftencomical,a
humorousaspecttoooftenlostintranslationintoEnglish,wheremany
wordsoriginallyborrowedfromFrenchnolongerstandoutasforeign.
When,forinstance,JeantalkstoKristinaboutMissJulie’sprojekt,theword
hasanunexpected,out-of-the-ordinarysoundinthecontextinwhichitis
usedinSwedish;thisislostinEnglishtranslation,where‘project’isno
longerlikelytobeperceivedasofFrenchorigin.Atothertimes,however,
Jean’suseoflanguageisnotdissimilartothatofKristin’s,nowrevealing
theirbackgroundandlackofeducationaswellastheirpositionasservants,
who,intalkingabouttheirsuperiorsbecomeoverlyverboseandpoliteasif
talking to them.

InordertosignalthedifferenceinsocialstatusbetweenJean,Kristinand

MissJulie,StrindbergalsomakesuseoftheavailabilityinSwedishof
severalpronounsofaddress,theSwedishformalversustheinformalform
of ‘you’, as well as the third person pronoun ‘he’.

AssuringJeanthatshedoesnotmindhimdancingwithMissJulie,

Kristinaddresseshiminthethirdpersonsingular,afrequentcustomin
Sweden at the time between men and women:

KRISTIN:

Inte! – Inte för så lite, det vet han nog; och jag vet min plats också.

[No!–Notforsolittle,heknows(youknow)that;andIknowmyplacetoo.]
(Strindberg, 1984: 121)

AsJeanisonlytoohappytotellus,heisnotastrangertoforeignlands.

AbletospeaktoMissJulieinFrench,sheisimpressedandaskswherehe
learnttospeakFrench,nowaddressinghimwith‘ni’,theformalpronounof
address:

(Jean enters dressed in black tails and a black bowler hat.)

MISSJULIE:

Très gentil, monsieur Jean! Très gentil!

JEAN:

Vous voulez plaisanter, madame!

MISSJULIE:

Et vous voulez parler français! Var harnilärt det?

[AndyouspeakFrench!Wherehaveyoulearntthat?](Strindberg,1984:
128: author’s emphasis)

Later,whenthetworeturnfromJean’sbedroomtoreappearonstage,

Jean,stillawareofthesocialgulfbetweenthem,addressesJuliewiththe
formalni.Forciblyremindedofreality,Juliereacts,imploringhimtousethe
informaldu. But he cannot bring himself to do it:

MISSJULIE:

(shy, very feminine)Ni!Sägdu!

Mellan oss finns inga skrankor mer! – Sägdu!

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[Ni(you)!Saydu(you)!/Therearen’tanybarriersbetweenusany
longer!/Saydu(you)!]

JEAN:

(in obvious agony)Jag kan inte!

Det finns skrankor mellan oss ännu, så länge vi vistas i detta hus ...
[Ican’t!/Therearestillbarriersbetweenus,aslongaswestayinthis
house ...] (Strindberg, 1984: 150)

Theswitchinpronominaladdressasadevicetosignalshiftsinemotion

usedbyShakespearebeforethethou/youdistinctionwasdiscontinuedin
EnglishisfoundnotonlyinotherScandinavianwritersoftheepoch,suchas
IbseninforexampleADoll’sHouseandHeddaGabler,butalsoinplaysby
PirandellosuchasSixCharactersinSearchofanAuthorandinRussiannovelists
including Tolstoy inAnna Karenina(Lyons, 1980; Anderman, 2005).

Strindberg’swritingalsosharesanotherfeaturewithIbsen’sdramas

thatdoesnotlenditselftosuccessfultranslationintoEnglish:thepolarity
effect.WhileMissJuliedreamsthatsheissittingonthetopofapillar,trying
tofalldown,Jeanimagineshimselfclimbingupahightree.Thisclear-cut
either/oraspectofStrindberg’swritingisboundtopresentEnglishaudi-
enceswithunfamiliarattitudesofextremes.AsMichaelMeyerhaspointed
out,thereisforinstancemuchinthecharacterofMissJuliethatmaybe
viewed as deeply un-English:

IntheSwedishtheatre,asintheGerman,theunforgivablesinisto
under-act.InEngland,itistooveract;howoftenhavewenotseenour
bestactors,whenfacedbythepeaksofOthelloandKingLear,take
refugeingentlemanlyunderplayingortheevasivenessoftheatrical
fireworks?Itisnocoincidencethattheonlytwoactorswhohavefully
succeededinStrindberginEngland,RobertLoraineandWilfrid
Lawson,havebeenactorsofmostun-English,onemightalmostsay
continentalvehemence,andconsequentlydifficulttocastinrolesof
ordinaryhumandimensions.Foraparallelreasontherehasneveryet
[...] been an adequate Miss Julie in England. (Meyer, 1966: 70)

Theseobservationsseemtoimplythatpotentiallymelodramaticinterpre-
tationsofStrindberg’slarger-than-lifecharactersareinherentinthepartsas
written,unrelatedtowhatevermighthavebeenlostoraddedintransla-
tion.FollowingtheLondonopeningofthe2000productionofMissJulie,
criticsrespondedtoJean’sconfessionstoMissJulie–thathehadbeenin
lovewithherfromanearlyage–withameasureofincredulity.Itisdifficult
tobelieve,itwasargued,thatthiscouldhavebeenthecase.However,the
pointthatappearstohavebeenmissedhereisthatwearenotsupposedto
knowwhetherJeanislyingortellingthetruth.Strindbergintendedustobe
leftindoubtastotheveracityofJean’sdeclarationofhischildhoodlovefor

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hismistress;hislinesatthispointconstituteso-called‘unreliablenarra-
tion’. In the words of Törnqvist:

Anarrator[...]isunreliablewhens/heconsciouslyorunconsciously
providesincorrectinformation(activeunreliability)orwhens/heis
withholdingimportantinformation(passiveunreliability).Although
theword‘unreliability’carriesnegativeovertones,itshouldbenoticed
thatacharactermaywellbeunreliableforgoodreasons.(Törnqvist,
1999: 62)

‘Unreliablenarration’isfoundinseveralofStrindberg’splays,an

obviousexamplebeingLaura’sbehaviourinTheFather.Havingjustbeen
informedbythedoctorthatshemust,atallcosts,trytoavoidarousingher
husband’ssuspicions,Laurapromptlysetsaboutsowingtheseedsthathe
maynotbethefatheroftheirdaughter,Bertha.Whattheaudiencecannot
besureof,however,iswhetherthisistrueornot.Strindbergleavesitforus
to work out for ourselves whether Laura is lying:

WemayguessthattheCaptain’sdoubtabouthisfatherhoodisafixed
idea,withnobasisinreality,butnothingintheplaycontradictsthe
oppositeinterpretation.Wegropefortherealityoftheplayinthesame
waythattheCaptainhimselfgropesforthetruthamongthemists
surrounding him. (Brandell, 1971; discussed in Törnqvist, 1999: 78)

Otherlinguisticevidencesignalledbythestyleoflanguagethat

StrindbergmakesLaurausewhenshe‘sowstheseeds’inherhusband’s
mind,corroboratesaninterpretationthatsheistryingoutherhypothesisto
dramaticeffect.Shenowdeliversherlinesindeclamatorystyle,ina
languagedifferentfromthatwhichshehasusedimmediatelybefore.This
shift has been captured in Richard Nelson’s translation:

LAURA:

You don’t know if you’re Bertha’s father.

CAPTAIN:

I know it.

LAURA:

You can’t. No one can.

CAPTAIN:

You’re joking.

LAURA:

No.It’sonlywhatyoutaughtmeyourself.Howcanyouever

know if I’ve been unfaithful to you?

CAPTAIN:

Youarecapableofmanythings,justnotthat.Andifyouwere,

you wouldn’t be talking about it.

LAURA:

WhatifIwasreadytogiveupeverything,tobethrownout,

despised,allofit,justfortherightinchoosinghowmychildisbrought
up?WhatifIwaswillingtotelltheworldthatBerthaismine,butnot
yours? What if – ?(Nelson, 1998: 29)

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InNelson’stranslation,thecolloquialexchangeprecedingLaura’s

‘Whatif–’speculationcontrastswithherelevated,somewhatmelodra-
maticchoiceofvocabularythatfollows,theshiftinlinguisticregister
providingsomedoubtaboutthetruthvalueofherlaterhypothesising.This
isnot,however,thecaseinPeterWatts’stranslation.Toalargeextent,the
problem is closely linked to Laura’s use of the word ‘doctrine’:

LAURA:

Simply that you don’t know that you are Bertha’s father.

CAPTAIN:

Of course I know!

LAURA:

No one can tell, so you certainly can’t.

CAPTAIN:

Is this a joke?

LAURA:

No,I’msimplyapplyingyourowndoctrine.Besides,howdo

you know that I haven’t been unfaithful to you?

CAPTAIN:

Icanbelievealotaboutyou,butnotthat.NordoIbelievethat

you’d talk about it if it were true.

LAURA:

SupposeIwerereadytoputupwithanything,tolosemyhome

andmygoodname,forthesakeofkeepingmychildandbringingher
up.SupposeIwastellingthetruthjustnowwhenIsaidBerthawasmy
child and not yours.
Suppose – (Watts, 1958: 43; author’s emphasis)

UnlikethetranslationbyWatts,Nelson’stranslatestheSwedishword

lärdomar(learning,knowledge)as‘It’sonlywhatyoutaughtmeyourself’,
whichaccuratelycapturesLaura’ssarcasticreferencetoherhusband’s
interestinthescientificdebateatthetime.TheCaptainisascientistand
partofhismountingfrustrationisattributabletohisfailuretoreceivethe
booksthatheneedstofurtheradvancehisreadinginthefieldof
Darwinismandthenewdiscoveriesmadeduringthelatterpartofthe19th
century.Laterintheplaywelearnthathissuspicionsare,infact,well
founded;hiskeeninterestinnewthinkingandideasisnotsharedbythe
womeninhishouseholdand,asitturnsout,owingtohiswife’sinterven-
tion, the eagerly awaited books have not arrived.

PartoftheprobleminWatts’stranslationislinkedtothechoiceofthe

word‘doctrine’asusedbyLauraimmediatelybeforeshestartsbaitingher
husband.Inchoosingtheword‘doctrine’,Wattsseemstohavesoughtand
foundaone-wordequivalenttotheoriginalSwedishword.Thisdecision,
however,leadstotwoproblems.First,itcreatesanimpressionofLauraas
beingmoreeducatedandwidelyreadthansheisintheoriginal.Oneofthe
reasonswhytheCaptainwantshisdaughtertobeeducatedawayfromthe
homeishisfearthatshewouldotherwiseremainignorantofthenewage
thatwasnowdawningandwouldprovesusceptibletothesuperstitions
widelyheldatthetimeamongthelesswelleducated.Second,theuseof

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‘doctrine’immediatelyprecedingthe‘Suppose–’hypothesisingspeech
tendstopre-empttheeffectofwhatistocome,whichrequiresachangein
linguistic register.

WhileaSwedishreaderofStrindbergiandramacontaining‘unreliable

narration’mightbeabletosensethatachangeinlanguagealsomeansa
changeinmoodandfeeling,stylisticnuancesthatserveasindicatorsof
thesechangesareonlytooeasilylostintranslation.ToreturnnowtoMiss
Julie,linguisticmarkersareobviouslynottheonlymeansthatStrindberg
usesinordertoindicatethatJean’sassurancesofhischildhoodfeelingsfor
MissJuliemightbefictitious.Fromotheraspectsofhisbehaviour—he
freelyhelpshimselftohisLordship’svintagewineforexample—weknow
thathischaracterisnotunflawed.Onstage,however,languageplaysas
importantapartasaction.Ifintranslation‘unreliablenarration’emergesas
ordinarynarrative,partoftheoveralldesignoftheplaywright’soriginal
workhasnotbeengivenexpression,inevitablyresultinginthelossofsome
of his original intentions.

Jeanis,however,notaloneingivingusgoodgroundsforsuspicionthat

hemightbeeconomicalwiththetruth.InthecaseofJulie,ithasbeen
suggestedthat‘weneverknowforsurehowmuchofJulie’spersonal
accountsismake-believe,howmuchisrecollectioncolouredbythepresent
andhowmuchisreasonablyaccurateretellingofchildhoodmemories’
(Brandell,discussedinTörnqvist,1999:78).UnlikeJeanwho,whenheno
longerfeelstheneedtoimpressJulie,openlyadmitsthatitwas‘justtalk’,
nothingovertlystatedinthetexttellsusthatJulie’srecollectionofherchild-
hoodmightnottallywiththefacts.Still,itisnotpossibletobecompletely
surethatsheistellingthetruthsinceearlieronshehasbeencaughtlying
aboutherbroken-offengagement.WhenJeanconfrontshersayingthatit
washerfiancéwhobrokeofftheengagement,Julieisunabletoacceptthe
truthandaccusesherfiancéaswellasJean,themessenger,oflying–when
ofcourseitisJulieherselfwhoisnownotentirelytruthful.Thisiscorrobo-
ratedbyanearlierexchangebetweenJeanandKristinwherewelearnofthe
eventsthatshewitnessedinthestableyard;itwasinfactMissJulie’sfiancé
who walked off and left her.

WhatStrindbergistryingtodohereistoallowtheaudiencetoexperi-

encethecontradictorysignalsoftenexperiencedinreallife.Wemayhavea
sensethatsomeoneislying,butnotbefullyawareoftheirreasonsfordoing
so.Failingtounderstanditallatthetime,wemightrecalltheincidentmuch
laterwhenthereasonspromptingtheliesarebetterunderstood.This
means,however,thatanactormustbeabletoconveythat‘hollow’sound
thatoftenaccompanies‘unreliableinformation’,whichinturnpresup-
posesanunderstandingthatthisisanaspectofthetextinthefirstplace.
And,themoresubtlyexpressedthesignalsareinthesourcelanguage,the
morelikelyitisthattheymightbemissedintranslation,resultingina

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flattenedtextbereftofalevelpresentintheoriginal.ToquoteStrindbergon
the subject of dialogue:

Ihaveavoidedthemathematical,symmetricallyconstructeddialogue
ofFrenchdramaallowingthebraintoworkirregularlyasitdoesinreal
lifewhereinaconversationasubjectisrarelycompletedbutinstead
onebrainrespondstothestimulusreceivedfromanother.(Josephson,
1965: 130)

Inordertosignalthecross-currentsbeneaththelevelofthespokenword,
Strindberg’sdialogueisbrokenupbydashes,dots,questionandexclama-
tionmarks.Sometimesthisisadeviceusedtoindicatethatacharactermay
sayonethingbutthinksomethingelse.When,forinstance,JeanandJulie
emergefromJean’sroom,knowingthattheynowhavetofacethemusic,
Jean’scharacteristicallymaleapproachtotheproblemistoembarkupona
planofaction,whichincludesleavingSwedenandtravellingsouth,toLake
Como.Heevengoesasfarastoconsultatimetableforinformationonthe
departuretimesoftrainsboundfortheContinent.Julie,ontheotherhand,
listensabsent-mindedly,onlyconcernedtohearJeantellherthatheloves
her. Finally she plucks up her courage:

FRÖKENJULIE:

Alltdetdärärbra!MenJean–duskallgemigmod–Sägattdu

älskar mig! Kom och omfamna mig!(Strindberg, SV, 1984: 149)
[

MISSJULIE:

Allthatiswellandgood.ButJean–youmustgiveme

courage – Tell me that you love me! Come and embrace me!]

Sinceheoftencompletedhisplayswithinaveryshortperiodoftime,

Strindberg,writinginafrenzy,frequentlyfailedtoshowconsistencyin
adheringtohisownhighlyidiosyncraticsystemofpunctuation.Whilethe
dashesinMissJulie’spleadingwithJeanmaybesuggestiveofoneinterpre-
tation,inothercontextstheymayserveadifferentpurpose.Onyetother
occasions,theymaybeusedtoindicatesimplythataspeakerhasbeen
interrupted.

Strindberg’suseofdotsisequallyinconsistent.Whilethreedotsatthe

endofalinemayindicateapauseinthedialogueaspointssuspensifs,they
mayalsoshowthatacharacterhasbeeninterruptedinthemiddleofa
sentence(Josephson,1965:138).WheninTheFatherLaurafirstintroduces
theideatotheCaptainthathemightnotbeBertha’sfather,hersecond
‘Whatif–’speculationisconcludedbythreedotsintheoriginalSwedish.In
thisandseveralotherexchanges,thethreedotsindicatethespeedofthe
dialogue,thatoneofthespeakersdoesnothavethetimetoconcludehis/
hersentence.ThelivelinessofStrindbergiandialogueis,however,attimes
alsoreinforcedbyquestionmarksand,aboveall,exclamationmarks,the
useofwhichvariesgreatlyfromthewaytheyarelikelytobeusedbyan
Englishplaywright.Attimestheirfunctionistoserveasaformofstage

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direction.InMissJulie,thisisclearwhenanexclamationmarkconcludesa
line such as:

FRÖKENJULIE:

(på knä med knäppta händer)O, Gud i himmelen gör

slut på mitt eländiga liv!(Strindberg, SV, 1984: 155)
[

MISSJULIE

(on her knees with clasped hands) Oh, God in Heaven,

put an end to my miserable life!]

HereStrindbergistellingtheactressplayingthepartofMissJuliethat

sheisfarfromcalmandcomposed.Yet,onanumberofotheroccasions,he
choosesnottousepunctuationasactingdirectives;insteadheprovides
specificinformationsuchas‘(Screams)’or‘(Convulsed)’.Mostbewilder-
ingly,perhaps,arelinesthatseemtobecandidatesforcalmdeliverance,but
whichneverthelessarefollowedbyexclamationmarks.InMissJulie,this
happensonmorethanoneoccasionwhenJeanisspeaking,asinhis
descriptionofthelovingcouplesatLakeComo,whooftenleavetheidyllic
retreatnotlongaftertheyarrive.‘Theyfalloutofcourse!buttherenthasto
bepaid,nevertheless!’Thereissomeevidenceherethat,whenStrindberg
unexpectedlyinsertsanexclamationmarkinthemiddleofasentence,
withintheframeworkofhishighlypersonalsystemofpunctuation,heis
showinghisownemotionalidentificationwiththesituation.Anexample
ofthisintenseempathywiththesubjectunderdiscussionisfoundinThe
GhostSonata.Atthetimethathewrotetheplay,Strindbergwasexperi-
encingconsiderableproblemsinfindingdomestichelp.Conversinginthe
HyacinthRoomwiththeYoungLady,theStudentcommentsonthe
apparentwealthofthehouseholdasmanifestedinthedomestichelp.He
receives an answer interspersed and concluded by exclamation marks:

FRÖKEN:

Det hjälper inte! om man så har tre!(Strindberg, SV, 1991: 219)

[

THEYOUNGLADY

It doesn’t help! even if one has three!]

ConfirmingtheimpressionofStrindberg’spersonalinvolvementwith

theproblemsofgettinggooddomesticserviceareotherreferencesinthe
playtoinadequatesupportwitheverydaychores,suchasbedshavingtobe
remadeandmaidswhosemethodsofcleaningleavesomethingtobe
desired.

HowthenarethevagariesofStrindbergianpunctuationdealtwithin

translation? Michael Meyer settles for the following approach:

Whataboutpunctuation?Itis,Ithink,acceptedthatatranslatormay
legitimatelybreakupalongsentenceintotwo,orjointwointoone;but
whatisonetodowithforexample,Strindberg’srepeateduseofexcla-
mationmarksandthreedots?Myownfeelingisthatatranslatormust
haveafreehandtoexciseboth.Exclamationmarksusedasoftenas
Strindbergusesthemgiveaterriblemelodramaticeffect;andthree
dotstendtobringouttheworstinanyactor–the‘meaningfulpause’.

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Actorsnowadays,andreaderstoo,areusedtolookingforthehidden
implicationofaphrase;betterthatafewshouldmisssuchanimplication
ratherthansaddlethedialoguewithsomethingthatisasdestructivein
its way as repeated italics. (Meyer, 1971: 49)

IncontrasttotheapproachchosenbyMichaelMeyer,inhismorerecent

translationofMissJulie,GregoryMottonchoosestoreplicateStrindberg’s
punctuationwithoutanyadjustmenttoEnglishconventions.Belowisthe
exchangebetweenJeanandJulieastheyplantoleavetheCount’shouse-
hold in Motton’s translation:

JEAN:

I’llcomewithyou–butnowatonce,beforeit’stoolate.Nowthis

moment!

MISSJULIE:

Get dressed then! (picks up birdcage)

JEAN:

But no luggage! It would give us away!

MISSJULIE:

Nonothing!Justwhatfitsintothecompartment.(Motton,

2000: 132)

Fauna and Flora in Translation

Strindberg’skeeninterestinnatureandhisawarenessoffaunaandflora

informhisnovelsaswellashisdramas.Ashewasinclinedtoresorttoless
ofathematicapproachthanIbseninTheWildDuckandChekhovinThe
Seagull,thetransferofStrindberg’sbirdsymbolismintranslationisnot
withoutproblems.InMissJulie,forexample,thesymbolofthebirdinits
cage,brutallykilledbyJean,clearlyforeshadowsMissJulie’sownfate.In
sometranslationsthisbirdisdescribedasa‘siskin’,inothersasa
‘greenfinch’.Thereasonforthisvariationintranslationisnotdifficultto
find.InSwedish,thenameofthebirdisgrönsiska,inaword-for-wordtrans-
lation,‘greensiskin’.AsnosuchbirdexistsinEnglish,translatorshave
beenforcedtochoosebetween‘greenfinch’,thenameofabiggerbird
belongingtothefinchfamily,and‘siskin’,asmallerbirdofthesamefamily,
morelikelytohavebeenkeptinacagebutlackingthereferencetothe
colourgreen.Although,strictlyspeaking,‘siskin’wouldseemamoreaccu-
raterendering,referringtothebirdasa‘greenfinch’doesnotdetractfrom
Strindberg’sintentionsintheoriginal.Morequestionable,however,isthe
decisiontogivethebirdamalegender.NotonlydoesMissJuliedescribe
thebirdas‘theonlylivingcreaturethatlovesme’andwenowknowJulie’s
feelingsaboutmen,butareferencetothebirdas‘he’alsomakesitdifficult
for the parallel to be drawn between the two victims:

JEAN:

All right, give me the little beast, I’ll wring its neck.

MISSJULIE:

Don’t hurt him will you? Don’t – Oh, I can’t!

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JEAN:

Well, I can – let’s have it. (Watts, 1958: 111)

Somewhatsurprisingly,however,amorerecenttranslationofMissJulie

intoEnglishchoosestodisregardtheindicationsmadepossiblebythe
gender aspect and refers to the siskin with the neutral pronoun ‘it’.

JEAN:

Give me the bastard and I’ll wring its neck.

MISSJULIE:

All right, but don’t let it suffer, don’t – I can’t, no –

JEAN:

Give me it – I can do it. (McGuiness, 2000: 51)

Whilethecagedsiskinmaybeseentorepresentawomanunableto

shakeoffherchains,predatorssuchastheeagle,thehawkandthefalcon
standformasculinitywithitsassociatedattributesofpowerandincisive-
ness.ItistruethatattimesStrindbergsawhimselfasadove,butthiswas
morelikelytohappenwhenhefeltunderpressureandthevictimofanevil
world.ButhewouldalsousethewordÖrnen(‘Eagle’),hisnomdeplume
duringhisuniversitydays,torefertohimselfinthehopeperhapsthatsome
ofthestrengthandpowerofthebirdmightruboffonhim.Strindbergeven
wentasfarasusingaquillfromanimperialeagleforwritingandwas
frequently photographed pen in hand (Brusewitz, 1989: 194–5).

HardlysurprisingthenthatStrindbergletsJeanreferto‘thehawksand

thefalcons’asthe‘rulers’soaringhighabovewhilethosethatthey‘rule’
have to remain content watching from down below:

JEAN:

...

Doyouknowhowtheworldlooksfromdownthere–no,you

don’t!Likehawksandfalconswhosebacksyourarelyseebecause
most of the time they’re soaring up there! (Strindberg, SV, 1984: 156)

In Frank McGuiness’s version, both predators remain as in the original:

JEAN:

...Doyouknowwhattheworldlookslikefromdownhere–no,

youdon’t.You’relikethehawkandthefalcon.Theyflysohighabove
you rarely see their backs. (McGuiness, 2000: 23)

InPeterWatts’stranslation,ontheotherhand,‘thehawks’remainwhile
‘the falcons’ turn into ‘eagles’:

JEAN:

...Youdon’tknowhowtheworldlooksfromdownbelow,do

you?No–ofcourseyoudon’t,anymorethanhawksandeaglesdo;and
wedon’tseetheirbacks,becausethey’renearlyalwayssoaringupover
our heads. (Watts, 1958: 90)

InHelenCooper’stranslation,thetwobirdsappearasonebutintheplural
form, ‘hawks’:

JEAN:

...Doyouknowwhattheworldlookslikefromdownhere?No,

youdon’tsee.Becauseyouseetheworldfromupthere–hoveringlike

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greathawks,highaboveus.What’sitlike?I’veneverflownwiththe
hawks. (Cooper, 1992: 15)

Apossiblereasonforthedecisiontoturnthetwobirdsintothesame

speciesmighthavebeentoreinforcethefocusonthehawkimage,oneto
whichStrindbergreturnslaterintheplay.UpontheirreturnfromJean’s
bedroom,JeanandMissJuliehavethefollowing,sexually-charged
exchange:

MISSJULIE:

And now you’ve seen the back of the hawk ...

JEAN:

Not exactly the back ... (Strindberg, SV, 1984:156)

Helen Cooper solves the problem in the following manner:

MISSJULIE:

So now you’ve flown with the hawks ...

JEAN:

Not exactlyflown.(Cooper, 1992: 25)

Frank McGuiness prefers to stay close to the original:

MISSJULIE:

Now you’ve seen the hawk on its back.

JEAN:

Not quite on its back. (McGuiness, 2000: 34):

Initsuseofbirdsymbolism,TheGhostSonatapresentsproblemsofan

evengreatercomplexity.WhentheMummyisusingparrotlanguage,
StrindbergalludestoanumberoffactsfamiliartoaSwedishbutnotan
English theatre audience.

MUMIEN:

(som en papegoja)Vackra gojan! Å Jakob ä där? Kurrrrre!

(Törnqvist, 1976: 22–3):

[THE MUMMY:

(Like a parrot.) Beautiful parrot! And Jaco is there?

Currrrr?]

Herethetranslatorisfacedwiththefollowingproblems.Thefirstpartof

thelinewouldnaturallybetranslatedas‘PrettyPolly’wereitnotforthe
factthatgojaisalsoacolloquialSwedishexpressionfornonsenseusedin
thecontextoftalkingrubbish,whichisofcourseexactlywhattheMummy
isdoing.Inaddition,Jacobisnotonlyawell-knownnameforaparrotin
Sweden,probablyderivedfrom‘jako’,thegenericnameforthekindof
parrotmostskilledinimitatinghumanlanguage,thereisafurther
dimensiontothereferencetoJacob.‘Jacob,whereareyou’isthenameofa
formofSwedish‘Blindman’sbluff’whichdrawsonthebiblicalimageof
theblindIsaacfeelinghissonJacobdressedasEsau.InTheGhostSonata,the
nameJacobisalsolikelytorefertoJacobHummel,thefatherofthe
Mummy’schild,whohasabandonedherandforwhomsheisnowlooking.
Thelikelihoodthatthisintricatewebofreferencesintheoriginalcouldbe
transferredintoEnglishwithanydegreeofsuccesswouldundoubtedly
seem slim.

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Inadditiontofauna,Strindberg’sworkalsomakesfrequentreferencesto

flora.InnorthernEurope,aftermanymonthsofcoldandsnow,thesigns
heraldingthearrivalofspringareeagerlyawaited.Amongthefirstsigns
arethegreenshootsofthewillowtree,usedbyStrindbergattheverybegin-
ning ofEasterto set the tone for the play:

ELIS:

(lookinground)Thedoublewindowsdown,thefloorscrubbed,

andcleancurtains!It’sreallyspringagain!They’vescrapedtheiceoff
thestreet,anddownbytheriverthewillowsareout.Yes,it’sspring...
(Watts, 1958: 124)

InSweden,asinChekhov’sRussia,intenseinterestiscentredonthe

birchtree;thereappearanceofnewgreenfoliageistraditionallylinkedto
thearrivalofawarmer,gentlerseason.Birchtrees,sprigsandwreaths
interwovenwithflowerswornbychildrenonfestiveoccasionsduringthe
summeroccurrepeatedlyintheSwedishidyllscapturedoncanvasby
Strindberg’sfriend,theartistCarlLarsson.WhentowardstheendofThe
Father,theCaptain,envelopedinastraightjacket,startsreminiscingabout
spring,itisamongthebirchtrees,representinglight,warmthandcarefree
happinessthatthebirdsandflowersstarttoappear.Itisdoubtful,however,
thatthesedeeplyfeltemotionsexpressedbytheCaptainintheoriginal
survive in John Osborne’s English adaptation of the play:

CAPTAIN:

... When you were so young, Laura, and we would walk in

the birch woods together, among the cowslips and thrushes.
Lovely,solovely.Justthinkofit–howpleasingourlifewasandhowit
is now. (Osborne, 1989: 49)

ThroughminimalEnglishadjustmentofStrindberg’sfloralimagery,the
relivingofthemomentismoresucccessfullyconveyedinRichardNelson’s
version, albeit at the cost of the loss of the birch trees:

CAPTAIN:

Laura, when we were young we took walks in the woods,

there were primroses, thrushes – that was good, that was good!

Scandinavianritualswhichmarkthearrivalofsummer,peakon

MidsummerEve.ThisisthetimewhenMissJuliestepsdownintothe
servants’quarters,fatefullymeetingwithJean.HaditnotbeenMid-
summerEve,whentraditionalrulesgoverningsocialbehaviourare
suspended,MissJuliewouldnothavebeenabletoinviteJeantodance,nor
couldshehavetrespassedontoservants’territory.Infactitmaybeargued
that,withouttheritualsandtheenchantmentofMidsummerEve,
Strindberg’splaycouldnothavebeenwritten,asJulie’smeetingwithJean
wouldneverhavetakenplace.Toevoketheatmosphereofthenightduring
whichthesunneversets,Strindberg’sstagedirectionscallforthekitchen
stovetobedecoratedwithbirchtwigs,theglassdoorstoreflectlilacbushes

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inblossominthegarden,andforajarrestingonthetabletobefilledwith
cutlilac.WhenMissJuliereminiscesabouttheMidsummersofherchild-
hoodsherecallslilacsandbirchtrees.TheveryfactthatitisonMidsummer
EvethatJuliemeetsherfate,thenightofhopes,wishesandpromises,isin
itselfasardonictwistimpossibletoconveyintranslation.AsJulierecalls:

JULIE:

The memories would start. I’d remember when I was a child –

the church on Midsummer Day was thick with leaves and
branches. Birch twigs and lilacs. (McGuiness, 2000: 49)

AsinthecaseofMissJulierecallingherchildhood,itisnottheflowers

persethatevokeemotionsbutwhattheyrecallandrepresent.InADream
Play,immediatelyfollowingtheprologueshowingIndra’sdaughter
descendingtoearth,thegildeddomeofthecastleemergesoutofa‘forestof
gianthollyhocks–white,pink,crimson,yellow,violet’.This,theveryfirst
floralimageofhollyhocksasarguablythesymbolofapparentblissand
happyidyll,maynotbetoounfamiliartoanEnglishaudience.Noristhe
nextfloralimageoccurringonlyshortlyafterwardsinthesceneinAct1
wherethecourtingOfficeriswaitingatthestagedoorforhisbeloved
Victoria.Viewedastheoriginal,centralcoreoftheplay(Lamm,1926:307)
thissceneoftenelicitsthestrongestresponsefromtheaudience,not
surprisinglyperhaps,consideringthenumberoftimesStrindbergmust
havebeenwaitingoutsidethetheatreforSirivonEssen,hisfirstwifeand
then,laterinlife,forHarrietBosse,histhird.Victorianeverappears,
however,andastheOfficergrowsolderandhishairturnswhite,theroses
inhishandwitheranddie.Butwhilethesymbolofredrosesiswellknown,
Strindberg’sstagedirectionsalsocallforanotherflower.Throughagatein
thewallapassagewayleadstoabrightgreenopeningwithagiant,blue
monkshood.AndastheOfficeranxiouslyawaitsthearrivalofVictoria,
failingtofindheramongtheactorshurriedlyleavingthroughthestage
door, Strindberg provides him with the following line:

THEOFFICER:

Shemustbeheresoon...(turningtothestagedoorattendant.)

Thebluemonkshoodoutthere.I’veseenitsinceIwasachild...Isitthe
sameone?...IrememberinavicarageoncewhenIwassevenyearsold
...there’retwodoves,bluedovesunderneaththathood...butthattime
abumble-beecameandcreptintothehood...Gotyou,Ithoughtand
presseditshut;butthebeestungthroughitandIcried...butthevicar’s
wifecameandputsomemudonit...andthenwehadwildstrawber-
riesandmilkforsupper...Ithinkit’sgettingdarkalready.(Strindberg,
SV, 1988: 23)

Accordingtohisownspecifications,Strindberg’sflowerisanAconitum,

whichmightgrowtothemajesticheightofclosetosixfeetandmusthave
seemedatoweringpresencetoaseven-year-old.Inthenorthernpartof

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Sweden,onevarietyofthisplant,theAconitumeptentrionale,withitslighter
blue,purplishflowersiscommonlyfoundgrowingwildinthemountains.
Strindberg,however,tojudgefromthereferencetothedarkbluecolourof
theflower,appearstohaveencounteredtheAconitumnapelluswhich,if
foundinthevicinityofavicarage,ismorelikelytobethegardenvariety.
HereStrindbergpaintsapictureoftwodovesnestlingunderneaththe
helmetorhoodoftheflower,animageofhappinessthatmatchestheinitial,
blissfulstateoftheOfficer,waitingforVictoria.ButjustasVictorianever
appearsandtheOfficerlosesthelovehethoughtwashis,thehappinessof
thetwodovesinsidetheflowercomestoapainfulendbroughtaboutbya
stingingbumble-bee.Tothismaybeaddedthatitisunlikelytohave
escapedtheattentionofStrindberg,thescientist,thatthemonkshoodisan
extremelypoisonousplant,containingthealkaloidaconitine.Inthecaseof
theOfficerasayoungboy,however,thereisfirstsomesoothingcomfort
availablefromthevicar’swifeintheformofwetmudtocoolthesting.And
tomakesuretheepisodehadahappyending,thechildrenfinishedtheday
withwildstrawberriesandmilk,everySwedishchild’swishcometrueona
warmsummer’sevening.FortheOfficer/authorontheotherhand,life’s
problemsarenolongersolvedquiteaseasilyandheconcludes,‘Ithinkit’s
getting dark already’.

TheextenttowhichtranslatorsofADreamPlayhavebeenfullyawareof

thedetailsinvolvedinthisfloralimageisdifficulttoascertain.InMeyer’s
translationthetwodovesarefirstdescribedasbeing‘onit’,then‘under
that hood’:

THEOFFICER:

Now,shemustbeheresoon.Isay!Thatfloweroutthere,

thatbluemonkshood.I’veseenthatsinceIwasachild.Isitthesame
one?Irememberinaparsonage,whenIwasseven–therearetwo
dovesonit,bluedovesunderthathood–butonceabeecameand
creptintothehood

.ThenIthought:‘NowIhaveyou!’,soIpinchedthe

flowershut;

butthebeestungthroughit,andIcried.Butthenthe

parson’swifecameandputwetearthonit–andwehadwildstrawber-
riesforsupper.Ithinkit’sgettingdarkalready.(Meyer,1973:14;
author’s emphasis)

InhisAmericanversion,EvertSprinchornhastackledtheproblemthis
way:

THEOFFICER:

She’sgottocomealongprettysoon...Madame–thatblue

floweroutthere–thatmonkshood.IrememberitfromthetimeIwasa
child.Can’tbethesameone,canit?...Itwasattheparsonage,I
remember,theminister’shouse–thegarden.Iwassevenyearsold...
Foldbackthetoppetals–thepistilandstamenlookliketwodoves.
Weusedtodothataschildren...Butthistimeabeecame–wentinto

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theflowe

r.‘Gotyou!’Isaid.AndIpinchedtheflowertogether.And

thebeestungme...AndIcried...Thentheminister’swifecameandput
mudonmyfinger...Laterwehadstrawberriesandcreamfordessertat
supper...Idobelieveit’sgettingdarkalready.(Sprinchorn,1986:662;
author’s emphasis)

WhileMeyerhasattemptedonlyaslightadjustment,andaddedthe

words‘onit’,Sprinchornhasclearlyfelttheneedtoexpandontheoriginal,
perhaps not altogether a wise decision.

Strindbergwasnotabotanistinthestrictsenseoftheword;hewas

attractedtoflora,primarilybecauseofthevarietyofshapesandconfigura-
tionswhich,tohisartist’smind,wouldtriggeroffachainofassociations.In
anessaywrittenduringthelatterpartof1875aboutanunfamiliarflower
foundonthebankoftheriverDanube,Strindberg’sinitialimpressionwas
ofaviolet.However,healsosawfeaturesreminiscentoftheorchidfamily
withitsgracefully-shapedbutterflyflowers.Uponhisreturnfromhis
botanicalexcursionheputtheflowerinwater.Floatingonthewater’s
surface,theplantnowrecalledmemoriesoftheleavesofthewaterlily
(Kärnell,1962:250–5).Whatpractisingbotanistssawassignificantdetails
forpurposesofclassification,wasoflittleinteresttoStrindberg,theartist,
forwhomtheimportancelayinsimilarityinform,shapeandcolour.The
triggeringofachainofassociations,setinmotionbyvisualstimuli,is
clearlyillustratedinTheGhostSonataintheexchangebetweenTheStudent
andtheterminally-illYoungLadyintheHyacinthRoom.Here,according
tothestagedirections,thereare‘hyacinthsofeverycoloureverywhere’,
againaclearlyintentionalchoiceofflower,ashyacinthsatthetimeof
Strindberghadstrongassociationswithfunerals.Theconversationstarts
withamentionofhyacinths,whichinturntriggersmorefloralimagery,
then expands to include other micro- and macrocosmic images:

THEYOUNGLADY:

NowIsee–aren’tsnowflakesalsosix-pointedlike

hyacinth lilies?

THESTUDENT:

You’re right – then snowflakes are falling stars ...

THEYOUNGLADY

Andthesnowdropisasnowstar...risingfromthe

snow.

THESTUDENT:

Andthelargestandmostbeautifulofallthestarsinthe

firmament,theredandgoldSiriusisthenarcissus,withitsredandgold
chalice and six white rays.

THEYOUNGLADY:

Have you ever seen the shallot in bloom?

THESTUDENT:

Icertainlyhave!Ittoobearsitsflowersinaball,asphere

like the globe of heaven, strewn with white stars ...

THEYOUNGLADY:

Yes! God, how magnificent! Whose idea was this?

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THESTUDENT:

Yours!

THEYOUNGLADY:

Yours!

THESTUDENT:

Ours!–Togetherwehavegivenbirthtosomething.Weare

wed ... (Carlson, 1981: 290)

IfStrindbergistoremainwhohewas,hisflightoffantasyandrapidasso-

ciativepowerswouldnotwithstandadjustmentandlarge-scaleadaptations.
Thereare,however,otherinstanceswherehisworkisnot‘untranslatable’
andwherethereisgoodreasonforthetranslatororplaywrightcreatinga
‘newversion’todigsufficientlydeepintotheoriginaltoensurethatthe
hidden depth of his genius is properly brought out.

Notes

1.ThisisashortenedversionofachapteronStrindbergtranslationinEuropeon

Stage: Translation and Theatre(Anderman, 2005).

2.Unless otherwise indicated translations throughout are my own.

References

Anderman,G.(2005)EuropeonStage:TranslationandTheatre.London:Oberon

Books.

Billington, M. (2006)The Guardian, 15 July.
Brandell, G. (1971)Drama i tre avsnitt.Stockholm: Wahlström & Widstrand.
Brusewitz,G.(1989)Guldörnenochduvorna:FågelmotivhosStrindberg.Stockholm:

Wahlström Widstrand.

Carlson,H.G.(trans.)(1981)Strindberg:FivePlays.Berkeley:UniversityofCalifornia

Press.

Cooper,H.(trans.)(1992)MissJulie.FromaliteraltranslationbyPeterHogg.

London: Methuen.

Josephson,L.(1965)Strindberg’sDramaFrökenJulie.Stockholm:Almqvist&Wiksell.
Kärnell,K-A.(1962)Strindbergsbildspråk:Enstudieiprosastil.Stockholm:Almqvist&

Wiksell.

Lamm, M. (1926)Strindbergs dramer II. Stockholm: Albert Bonniers Förlag.
Lyons,J.(1980)ThepronounsofaddressinAnnaKarenina:Thestylisticsof

bilingualismandtheimpossibilityoftranslation.InS.Greenbaum,G.Leechand
J.Svartvik(eds)StudiesinEnglishLinguisticsforRandolphQuirk(pp.109–122).
London: Longman

McGuiness,F.(trans.)(2000)AugustStrindberg:MissJulie,andTheStronger.Froma

literal translation by Charlotte Barslund. London: Faber and Faber.

Meyer,M.(1966)StrindberginEngland.InC.R.Smedmark(ed.)EssaysonStrindberg

(pp. 65–73). Stockholm: Beckman.

Meyer, M. (1971) On translating plays.20th Century Studies(11), 44–51.
Meyer,M.(trans.)(1973)AugustStrindberg.ADreamPlay:AnInterpretationbyIngmar

Bergman. London: Secker and Warburg.

Motton,G.(trans.)(2000)Strindberg.ThePlay(Vol.1):TheFather,MissJulie,The

Comrades, Creditors. London: Oberon Books.

Nelson, R. (adapt.) (1998)August Strindberg:The Father. London: Oberon Books.
Osborne,J.(adapt.)(1989)Strindberg’sTheFatherandIbsen’sHeddaGabler.London:

Faber and Faber.

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Sprinchorn,E.(trans.)(1986)ADreamPlay:SelectedPlays,AugustStrindberg.

Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

Strindberg,A.(1984)Samladeverk,nationalupplaga[CollectedWorks,NationalEdition].

(SV Vol. 2)Fordringsägare’Fadren, Fröken Julie.Stockholm: Almquist & Wiksell.

Strindberg,A.(1988)Samladeverk,nationalupplaga[CollectedWorks,NationalEdition].

(SV Vol. 46)EttDrömspel.Stockholm: Norstedts.

Strindberg,A.(1991)Samladeverk,nationalupplaga[CollectedWorks,NationalEdition].

(SVVol.58)Kammarspel,Oväder,Brändatomten,Spöksonaten,Pelikanen,Svarta
handsken. Stockholm: Almquist & Wiksell.

Törnqvist,E.(1976)AttöversättaStrindbergSpöksonatenpåengleska.Svensk

litteraturtidskrift39 (2), 3–31.

Törnqvist,E.(1999)UnreliablenarrationinStrindbergiandrama.Scandinavica38

(1), 61–79.

Watts,P.(trans.)(1958)ThreePlays.AugustStrindberg:TheFather,MissJulie,Easter.

London: Penguin Books.

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Chapter 9

Mind the Gap: Translating the
‘Untranslatable’

MARGARET JULL COSTA

Introduction

Acloudofnegativitytendstohoveroverthesubjectoftranslation.

Peoplesaysourlythatsomething‘readslikeatranslation’orelsedredgeup
RobertFrost’sdictumthat‘poetryiswhatgetslostintranslation’.Acopy
editorevensaidtomeoncethatmytranslationhadalmostconvincedher
thatitmightbeworthreadingtranslations.Wetranslatorsareaparadoxi-
callymuch-reviledandmuch-ignoredbunch,andtheideaoftheexistence
of‘culturalconcepts’thatobstinatelyresisttranslationcanfeellikeone
morestickwithwhichtobeatthetranslator.Asafull-timeliterarytrans-
latorfromSpanishandPortuguese,IsupposeIcan’taffordtobelieveinthe
untranslatable.It’smyjobtotranslateeverything,knowingthatthere
mightbesomeloss,butthattheremightalsobegain,andnevergivinginto
thatcounselofdespairtellingmethatatranslationisnottherealthing,not
thesamething,anddefinitelyneverabetterthing.WhatIproposetodoin
thischapteristodiscusshowIhavedealtwithtranslatingtheapparently
untranslatable cultural ‘aura’ around:

(1)words – naming the physical world;
(2)phrases – puns, idioms, proverbs;
(3)references – historical, geographical and cultural.

Theexampleswillbedrawnfromfourofmytranslations:TheMaias(Os

Maias)bythegreat19th-centurynovelistEçadeQueiroz;Seeing(Ensaio
sobrealucidez)byNobelprize-winnerJoséSaramago;TheCrossing:AStory
ofEastTimor(CrónicadeumaTravessia:AépocadoAi-Dik-Funam)bytheEast
TimoresewriterLuísCardoso,andTheBookofDisquiet(Livrododesassossego)
by the Portuguese modernist poet Fernando Pessoa.

Naming the Physical World

Asanybemusedtouristwillknow,foodcanbeveryculturallyspecific,

anditcanpresentproblemsforthetranslatortoo.Iwouldliketolookattwo

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exampleswherethewriterisusingaparticularculinaryitemforits
symbolicvaluewithintheplotandwherefindingapreciseEnglishequiva-
lent(ifsuchathingexists)maybelessvitalthanbringingoutitssymbolic
role.ThereisanepisodeinTheMaiasinwhichthelove-struckhero,Carlos,
goeswithafriendtoSintra,thefashionablesummerretreatjustoutside
Lisbon,whichByron(1902:8)memorablydescribedas‘gloriousEden’.
CarlosisgoingtoSintrabecausehebelievesthattherehewillfindthe
womanwhomhehasseentwice,butnevermet,andwithwhomhehas
nonethelessfallenpassionatelyinlove.Hisfriend,Cruges,hasbeen
chargedbyhismothernottoreturnwithoutbringingbackauniqueSintra
speciality–queijadas(tartletsfilledwithamixtureofsugar,egg,cinnamon
andafreshcheesesimilartoricotta).Bothmen,therefore,areonamission,
andtheliteraryfunctionofCruges’missionistoactasabatheticcounter-
parttothatofCarlos.Theydrivebackattheendoftheday,withCarlos
havingfailedtoencounterhistruelove,andCrugeshavingforgottento
buythecakes.Bothwomanandcakesaredelectable,sought-after
consumablesand,aswelearnlater,bothcanbebought.Thechapterends
withCruges’heartfeltcry:‘Esqueceram-measqueijadas!’(‘Iforgotthe
queijadas!’) (Jull Costa, 2006: 251).

AnyPortuguesereaderwouldknowthatqueijadasareaSintraspeciality,

butIhavedecidednottomakethisexplicitatthispointinthetranslationfor
the following reasons:

•Ifeel that this is sufficiently clear from the context;
•anyBritishorAmericanreaderisgoingtobefamiliarwiththeconcept

ofaspecialcakeorcandythatisuniquetoaparticulartown,espe-
cially a tourist town.

Andinaway,howItranslatequeijadasisirrelevantbecausewhatmatters

istheconnectionthereaderisbeingaskedtomakebetweentheelusive
womanandwhatprovetobetheelusivecakes.Thatsaid,atranslationhas
tobefound.‘Cheesecakes’conjuresupthewrongimage,soperhaps
‘cheesetartlets’or‘cheesepastries’wouldbebetter,andIhave,forthe
moment,optedforthelatter(Iamstillputtingthefinishingtouchestomy
translation).Leavingtheworduntranslatedandperhapsaddingafootnote
is,ofcourse,anoption(onethatIdiscussbelow),buthereitwould,Ifeel,
drawunnecessaryattentiontotheword.Itdoesnotreallymatterwhatkind
ofcakestheseare.Itdoesmatterthatthetranslationisconsistent
throughoutthenovel,however,becausethesequeijadas,havingoncebeen
associatedwithMariaEduarda–thewomanbeingpursued–recurlaterin
thenovel,eitherasagiftthathas,again,beenforgottenorasagiftthat
comestonothing.WhenEga,Carlos’sbestfriend,firstmeetsMaria
Eduarda at Carlos’s house, he brings with him a packet ofqueijadas:

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Masopapelpardo,malatado,desfez-se;eumaprovisãofrescadequeijadasde
Sintra

rolou,esmagando-se,sobreasfloresdotapete.

(EçadeQueiroz,

1888: 473)
However,thebrownpaperparcel,onlylooselytiedtogether,came
undone,andafreshsupplyofexquisiteSintracheesepastries
tumbledoutontothefloralrugandpromptlycrumbledintonothing.
(Jull Costa, forthcoming)

Here,Ihaveadded‘exquisite’inordertounderlinethedeliciousness

andspecialnessofthesecakes.Ihave,inasense,expandedon‘esmagando-
se’bytranslatingitas‘crumbledintonothing’.However,since‘esmagar’
meansnotonly‘crumble’,butalso‘crush’and‘exterminate’,andsincethe
‘unique’relationshipbetweenMariaEduardaandCarlosisjustasfragileas
thosecheesepastriesandwill,quitesoon,also‘crumbleintonothing’,this
‘expansion’ is, I feel, justifiable.

Stayingwiththeculinaryworld,inSaramago’sSeeing,itistheturnof

biscuitstotakeonsymbolicovertones.Thepoliceinspector(theembattled
anti-heroofthepiece),calledintoinvestigateasupposedconspiracy,is
maroonedinaratherbleakapartmentinwhichallhehasbeenlefttoeatfor
breakfastaresomeratheroldbolossecos.Theseareakindofthicklytextured
biscuit, rather like brittle shortbread:

Osbolospareciamfeitosdegranitocomaçucar.Trincava-oscomforça,
reduzia-osapedaçosmaiscómodosdemastigar,depoislentamentedesfazia-os.
(Saramago, 2004: 279):
Thebiscuitswerelikesugarygranite.Hebitintothemhard,reduced
themtosmallerpiecesthatwereeasiertochew,thenslowlycrumbled
them up. (Jull Costa, 2006: 260)

AsSaramagomakesclearhere,bolossecosgrowharderastheygrow

stale.This,ofcourse,istheoppositeofwhathappenstomostbiscuits,
which,lefttotheirowndevices,growsofter.However,asatranslation,
‘shortbread’isfartooScottishand,aswiththequeijadas,anexactEnglish
translation(thereisn’tone)islessimportantthanwhatthestalenessand
inedibilityofthebolossecosareintendedtoevoke:theinspector’sloneli-
ness,thearidnatureofthemissionhehasbeensenton,hisdoggedadher-
encetoduty(eatingtheinediblebiscuitsbecausetheyarewhathavebeen
giventohimtoeat),aswellastheungenerous,uncaringnatureofthe
regimeheisworkingfor.So‘biscuits’or,later,‘stalebiscuits’mustberelied
on to relay all of that.

Anotherof‘my’authors,theSpanishnovelist,JavierMarías,hashimself

workedasatranslator.Hesaysthat‘thetranslatorisaprivilegedreader...
andaprivilegedwriter’(Patterson,2006).Ithinkhemeansbythisthatany
goodtranslationinevitablyinvolvesaveryclosereadingofatext,which

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means,asIhopeIhaveillustrated,thatanyculturalconceptmustbeviewed
inthecontextofthebookorstoryasawholeandtranslatedaccordingly.The
translatorisalso‘aprivilegedwriter’:if,asatranslator,youareluckyenough
toworkwithveryfinewriters,yourownskillsasawriterareconstantly
beingchallengedandexpanded.Indeed,youoftenhavetostretchyourown
languageinordertoaccommodatethelanguagebeingtranslated.

Anexample:thePortuguesehaveawordfortheareaimmediately

outsideabuildingorhouse,testada.Invillages,itwas(andmaystillbe)the
customforthewomenofthehousetokeeptheirtestadasweptandclean.In
Seeing,duringastrikebystreet-cleaners,thewomencomeouttocleanup
any rubbish themselves:

...enistoseestavaquando,meio-diaexactoera,detodasascasasdacidade

saírammulheresarmadasdevassouras,baldesepás,e,semumapalavra,
começaramavarrerastestadasdosprédiosemqueviviam,desdeaportaaté
aomeiodarua,ondeseencontravamcomoutrasmulheresque,dooutrolado,
paraomesmofimecomasmesmasarmas,haviamdescido.Afirmamos
dicionáriosqueatestadaéapartedeumaruaouestradaqueficaà
frentedeumprédio

,enadahádemaiscerto,mastambémdizem,dizem-no

pelomenosalguns,quevarrerasuatestadasignificaafastardesi
algumaresponsabilidadeouculpa

.Grandeenganoovosso,senhores

filólogoselexicólogosdistraídos,varrerasuatestadacomeçouporserprecisa-
menteoqueestãoafazeragoraestasmulheresdacapital,comonopassado
tambémohaviamfeito,nasaldeias,assuasmãeseavós,enãoofaziamelas,
comoonãofazemestas,paraafastardesiumaresponsabilidade,maspara
assumí-la. (Saramago, 2004: 106)

...andthen,atmiddayexactly,whileallthiswasgoingon,fromevery

houseinthecitythereemergedwomenarmedwithbrooms,buckets
anddustpans,and,withoutaword,theystartedsweepingtheirown
patchofpavementandstreet

,fromthefrontdoorasfarasthemiddle

oftheroad,wheretheyencounteredotherwomenwhohademerged
fromthehousesoppositewithexactlythesameobjectiveandarmed
withthesameweapons.Now,thedictionariesstatethatsomeone’s
patchisanareaundertheirjurisdictionorcontrol,inthiscase,the
areaoutsidesomebody’shouse,

andthisisquitetrue,buttheyalsosay,

oratleastsomeofthemdo,thattosweepyourownpatchmeansto
lookafteryourowninterests

.Agreatmistakeonyourpart,Oabsent-

mindedphilologistsandlexicographers,tosweepyourownpatch
startedoutmeaningpreciselywhatthesewomeninthecapitalare
doingnow,justastheirmothersandgrandmothersbeforethemusedto
dointheirvillages,andthey,likethesewomen,werenotjustlooking
aftertheirowninterests,butaftertheinterestsofthecommunityas
well. (Jull Costa, 2006: 92–3)

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Here,theproblemforthetranslatoriscompoundedbythefactthatthere

isalsoaPortugueseidiomusingthetermtestada–varreratestada.Thishas
theliteralmeaningof‘tosweepthetestada’andtheidiomaticsenseof‘totry
toslideoutoftakingresponsibilityforsomething’.Facedbytwoconcepts
highlyspecifictoPortugalandtoPortuguese,Iplumped,aftermuch
mentalwrestling,for‘patch’andinventedanEnglishidiomtogowithit,
feelingthatSaramago’scommentonthefallibilityofdictionariesandlexi-
cographersgavemeacertainleeway.Afterall,thewholepassagedoestilt
atauthorityanditscut-and-driedwaysonbehalfofthedemoticandthe
informal.My‘invention’meantthatIhadbothtoaddtoandsubtractfrom
theoriginal,asyoucanseebycomparingthesectionsinboldintheoriginal
andinthetranslation.Whatmatters,Ifeel,isthatIhavekeptthelinguistic
playfulnessofthePortuguese,andifthathasrequiredmetoindulgeina
littlecreativeinfidelitytoboththeEnglishandthePortugueselanguages,
then so be it.

Punds, Idioms, Proverbs

Puns,idiomsandproverbsaresometimesobliginglyeasytotranslate

andsometimessoculturallyfixedastobeexceedinglydifficult.Inthecase
ofSaramago,wholovesidiomaticexpressionsandproverbs,heoften
compoundsthedifficultyforthetranslatorbypunningonorplayingwith
proverbs,sothat,sometimes,the‘normal’,‘easy’translationofaproverb
hastoberejectedinfavourofanotherlessobviousversion.Anexample:the
policeinspectorinSeeinghasreturnedtotheapartment,expectingtomeet
anambush.Hechecksalltheroomsandwardrobes,thenfeelsslightlyridic-
ulouswhenhefindsnolurkingattackers.Inresponsetotheinspector’sslight
embarrassment,thenarratorcommentsconsolingly:‘oseguromorreude
velho’).TheequivalentinEnglishwouldprobablybe‘bettersafethansorry’,
butthiswon’tdohere,fortworeasons.Theapartmentinwhichheisstaying
–abaseforpoliceofficersworkingundercover–masqueradesastheofficeof
aninsurancecompany,ProvidentialLtd,andthesentencegoeson:

...devesabê-lobemestaprovidencial,s.a.sendonãosódeseguros,mastambém
de resseguros.(Saramago, 2004: 319)

...asprovidentialltdmustwellknow,sinceitdealsnotonlywithinsur-

ance but with reinsurance.

(Jull Costa, 2006: 298)

The‘seguro’intheproverb,meaningmoreorless‘hewhoplayssafe’,is

pickedupin‘seguros’and‘resseguros’–‘insurance’and‘reinsurance’.Sothe
translatedproverbhas,ifpossible,toincludeareferenceto‘sure’/’insure’.
Also,theinspector,havingdisobeyedorders,isdoomed,andtheproverb
thereforebecomesanironiccommentonhisimminentdemise,forhehas
notplayedsafeatall.Mysolutionwas,again,toinvent:‘slowbutsure

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ensuresaripeoldage’,whichcombinesallthenecessaryingredientsand
has, I hope, an authentic proverbial ring.

Anotherexample:earlierinthenovel,theinspectorisbringingtoaclose

anawkwardconversationwithasuspectinwhichhehasavoidedrevealing
therealreasonforhisvisit:‘...veremossenestecasoseconfirmaoantigoditado
que diziaQuem fez a panela fez o testo para ela...’ (Saramago, 2004: 238)

TheredidnotappeartobeaneatEnglishequivalentforthisproverb(in

bold),althoughperhaps‘nosmokewithoutfire’wouldbetheclosest.
However,Ioptedhereforaliteraltranslation:‘Shethatmadethesaucepan
madethelid’whichkeepsthepleasingcombinationoftheantiquated,the
domesticandthegnomic,andispickedupinthecontinuingconversation:

Depanelassetrataentão,senhorcomissário,perguntouemtomirónicoa
mulherdomédico,Detestos,minhasenhora,detestos,respondeuocomissário
aomesmotempoqueseretirava,aliviadoporaadversárialheterfornecidoa
respostaparaumasaídamaisoumenosairosa.Tinhaumalevedordecabeça.
(Saramago, 2004: 238)
Soit’stodowithsaucepans,then,superintendent,askedthedoctor’s
wifeinawrytone,No,it’stodowithlids,madam,lids,repliedthe
superintendentashewithdrew,relievedthathisadversaryhad
suppliedhimwithareasonablynimbleexitline.Hehadafainthead-
ache.(Jull Costa, 2006: 219)

The ludicrous nature of the exchange has thus been preserved.

Aswithidiomsandproverbs,theadjective‘untranslatable’isfrequently

attachedtotheword‘pun’,andhereagainitisoftenimpossibleforthe
translatorsimplytotranslatewhatisthere.Anewandequallyappropriate
punhastobeinvented.InSeeing,twoelectionsareheldinwhichthe
majorityoftheelectoratehasreturnedblankvotes–‘votosbrancos’.Now
‘branco’canmean‘blank’and‘white’,afactthatsometimesworkswiththe
Englishtranslatorandsometimesagainst.Forexample,whenagovern-
mentministercommentsthatthereturningofblankvotescouldspreadlike
amodern-dayblackdeath(pestenegra),theprimeministercorrectshim
with:‘Youmeanblankdeath(pestebranca),don’tyou’.Thehappyfactthat
‘black’and‘blank’soundsimilarinEnglishintroducesarathersatisfying
‘new’pun.However,thingsgrowmorecomplicatedwhenthenarrator
describeshowtheword‘branco’(associatedwiththeelectiondébâcleof
blankvotes)becomesataboowordthatordinarycitizenstakepainsto
avoid,fearfulofbeingaccusedofhavingbeenpartofthesupposed‘blank
voteconspiracy’.Helistssomeoftheturnsofphrasecontainingtheword
‘branco’ that people are now careful not to say:

Deumafolhadepapelbranco,porexemplo,dizia-sequeeradesprovidadecor,
umatoalhaquetodaavidatinhasidobrancapassouasercordeleite,a

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nevedeixoudesercomparadaaummantobrancoparatornar-sena
maiorcargaalvacentadosúltimosvinteanos

,osestudantesacabaram

comaquilodedizerqueestavamembranco,simplesmenteconfessavamque
não sabiam nada da matéria... (Saramago, 2004: 54)
Ablankpieceofpaper,forexample,wouldbedescribedinsteadas
virgin,ablankonaformthathadallitslifebeenablankbecamethe
spaceprovided,blanklooksallbecamevacantinstead,

students

stoppedsayingthattheirmindshadgoneblank,andowneduptothe
factthattheysimplyknewnothingaboutthesubject...(JullCosta,
2006: 43–44)

Here,Ihadtochangetwooftheexamples(compareboldtextinoriginal

andtranslation)andariddlethatoccurslaterinthesameparagraph:
‘Brancoé,galinhaopõe’.Theoriginalriddlemeansliterally:‘It’swhiteanda
henlaysit’.Since‘votosbrancos’inEnglishare‘blankvotes’,theword
‘white’isofnousetome,anditseemsimpossibletocomeupwithariddle
thatwillcombinethewords‘blank’and‘chicken’or‘hen’andthenfitin
withwhatensues.AndsoIcreatedmyownriddle–‘Youcanfillmein,
draw me and fire me’ – and completely rewrote the rest of the passage:

•masocasomaisinteressantedetodosfoiosúbitodesaparecimentoda

adivinhacomque,durantegeraçõesegerações,pais,avós,tiosevizinhos
supuseramestimularainteligênciaeacapacidadededutivadascriancinhas,
Brancoé,galinhaopõe,eistoaconteceuporqueaspessoas,
recusando-seapronunciarapalavra,seaperceberamdequeapergunta
eraabsolutamentedisparatada,umavezqueagalinha,qualquer
galinhadequalquerraça,nuncaconseguirá,pormaisqueseesforce,
pôr outra coisa que não sejam ovos.

(Saramago, 2004: 54)

butthemostinterestingcaseofallwasthesuddendisappearanceofthe
riddlewithwhich,forgenerationsandgenerations,parents,grandpar-
ents,aunts,unclesandneighbourshadsoughttostimulatetheintelli-
genceanddeductivepowersofchildren,Youcanfillmein,drawme
andfireme,whatamI,andpeople,reluctanttoelicitthewordblank
frominnocentchildren,justifiedthisbysayingthattheriddlewas
fartoodifficultforthosewithlimitedexperienceoftheworld.

(Jull

Costa, 2006: 44)

So,yes,thosepunsare,inasense,untranslatable,butdifferentpunscan

becreatedtoreplacethem,aslongastheyareinkeepingwiththetoneand
tenor of the original.

IsupposethisandotherexamplesIhavegivencouldbeconstruedas

‘domestication’.Asyouarenodoubtaware,therearetwosupposedly
opposingcampsintranslation–theforeignisersandthedomesticators–
thosewhofeelthatsomehintofforeignnesscanandshouldremaininthe

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translation,andthosewhobelievethatatranslationshouldreadasiforigi-
nallywritteninthetargetlanguage,inmycase,English.Ithinkthatmost
translatorsprobablymovebetweenthesetwocampsallthetime.Suchis
thecomplexityoflanguagesandofcultures,thathard-and-fastrules
simplycannotbeappliedtotheartoftranslation,whereoneisconstantly
jugglingwithlinguisticandculturalconceptswhichmayormaynothave
an equivalent in the target language.

Historical, Geographical and Cultural References

Oneis,perhaps,onsafergroundintheworldofcultural,historicaland

geographicalreferences,sincenointerpretationisrequired.Here,though,
theproblemishowmuchtoexplainandhowtodoit.OsMaiaswasfirst
publishedin1888,butisset13yearsorsobeforethat,andrefersbacktoa
stillearlierperiod.Itisfullofreferences,someofwhichtheauthor,Eça,
explainsinthetext;othersheassumesthereaderwillunderstand.For
example,thegrandfatherinthenovelwas,inhisyouth,considereda
dangerousradicalbyhisoverlypiousfather,andwhenthegrandfather/
son apparently recanted and asked to be allowed to travel to England:

Opaibeijou-o,todoemlágrimas,acedeuatudofervorosamente,vendoalia
evidente,agloriosaintercessãodeNossaSenhoradaSoledade!Eomesmofrei
JerónimodaConceição,seuconfessor,declarouestemilagre–nãoinferioraode
Carnaxide.(Eça de Queiroz, 1888: 14)
Hisfatherkissedhimtearfullyandgavehisferventconsent,seeingin
allthistheevident,gloriousintercessionofOurLadyofSolitude!Even
hisconfessor,FatherJerónimodaConceição,declaredthismiracletobe
innowayinferiortothevisionofOurLadyatCarnaxide.(JullCosta,
forthcoming)

Ihaveslightlyexpandedtheoriginaltexttoexplainenoughaboutthe

referencetomakeitcleartothemodern-dayAnglophonereader,giving
informationaboutthenatureofthismiracle.Again,whenEçareferstothe
Belfast,theBritishshipthatcarriedtosafetyinEnglandmanyofthe
PortugueseliberalsfleeingtheMiguelistacoupin1828,Ihaveaddedjusta
fewbitsofinformationtoindicatewheretheysailedfromandthenation-
ality of the ship:

Aoprincípioosemigradosliberais,PalmelaeagentedoBelfast,aindao
vieram desassossegar e consumir.(Eça de Queiroz, 1888: 16)
Atfirst,otherliberalemigrés,PalmelaandthosewhosailedfromLa
CoruñaintheBritishship,theBelfast,cametobotherandbadgerhim.
(Jull Costa, forthcoming)

Idomybesttoavoidfootnotes.Mostpublishersofforeignfictionhate

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them,andIprefertoincludeinformationinthetextwherepossible.Ihave
resortedtofootnotesinonlytwotranslations.ThefirstwasinTheBookof
Disquiet(Livrododesassossego)byFernandoPessoa,whereIsuppliedfoot-
notesaboutsomeofthePortuguesewritersmentionedinthetext,andwith
whomIfeltreadersmightnotbefamiliar.IalsoexplainedwhattheBaixain
Lisbonis–thelowertowninLisbon,wherethemainshopsandofficesstill
are,andwherethenarrator-diarist,BernardoSoares,works.Ialsoincluded
astreetmap.However,whentranslatingthenovelsofEçadeQueiroz,most
ofwhicharealsosetinLisbon,Ihavechosennottodothis,possiblybecause
Ifeelthatplotismoreimportantthanplace,whereasintheplotless,frag-
mentary world ofThe Book of Disquietplace is paramount.

TheonlyotherbookwhereIfeltthatfootnotesand,indeed,aglossary

wereindispensablewasTheCrossing:AStoryofEastTimorbyLuisCardoso
(1997),whichisfullofplacenames,personalnamesandterminologythat
wereentirelyunfamiliartomeandwouldbeequallyunfamiliartomost
readers.ThiswasthefirsttimeIhadtranslatedabooksetinacultureanda
countryaboutwhichIknownothing,anditwasquiteanalarmingexperi-
ence.DespiteitslongoccupationbythePortuguese,EastTimorisnothing
likePortugal,apartfromtheeducationsystemcomprisingJesuitschools
andcolleges,andtheimplantation,initsday,ofSalazar’sfascistyouth
movement,MocidadePortuguesa.Fortunately,theauthorwasimmensely
helpfulandpatientwhenfieldingmymany,manyqueries.Anumberofthe
placenamesrequiredfootnotesbecausetheywerenotjustplaces,but
placesofgreatsymbolicmeaningtotheEastTimorese.TheTetumname
(TetumisoneofthemainnationallanguagesinEastTimor)forRamelau
whichwasfamousasthehighestpeakinthePortugueseempireis
Tatamailau,whichmeans‘grandfatherofmountains’andwasadoptedby
Fretilin(FrenteRevolucionáriadeTimor-LesteIndependenteorRevolutionary
FrontforanIndependentEastTimor)asasymbolofthehighaspirationsof
theEastTimoresepeople.Ascanbeseenfromthenumberofparenthetical
explanationsinthatoneexplanation,therewasmuchtoexplain!Also
Cardoso,writinglargelyfortheEastTimoresediaspora,wouldmake
obliquereferencestopeopleandthings,whichwouldbetransparentto
anyonefromEastTimor,bututterlyopaquetoanyonenot.(ThePortuguese
editionIworkedfromalsohadsomefootnotesforthebenefitofPortuguese
readers.)Thereisareferenceinonesectiontoacorralownedby‘umaCorte-
Real’,which,apparently,isacommonnameinthearea,andusuallydenotes
somememberoflocalroyalty.JoséAlexandreGusmãoismentionedasa
schoolfellowandfailedgoalkeeper,butnoreferenceismadetothefactthat
heis,infact,XananaGusmão,later,theguerrillaleaderoftheindepend-
encemovementinEastTimorand,subsequently(althoughnotuntil2002,
fiveyearsaftertheoriginalwaspublishedandtwoyearsaftermytransla-
tion),itsfirstPresident.Peoplearecommonlyreferredto,aswell,bynames

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thatindicatewhereinEastTimortheycomefrom:dagadá,someonefrom
theregionofLosPalos;bunak,someonefromtheBobonaroregion;firaku,
someonefromtheeasternmostpointofEastTimor,etc.Theotherbitof
essentialapparatustobeaddedwasamapofEastTimor.Andtherewere
somethingssoalientoourculturethatonlyanotewouldsufficetoexplain,
forexample,rain-fila.Thisisatrickthatthelandplaysonintruderstomake
themlosetheirway.Ifthishappens,yourguidemustremoveallhisclothes,
putthemonagainbacktofrontandthensetoffoncemore.Theseaplaysa
similartrick,andthisisknownastassi-fila.Thenthereisthewholevocabu-
larysurroundingcockfighting,thechewingofmasca(betel)andthecelebra-
tionofkorem-metam(apartyheldoneyearafterthedeathofarelativeor
lovedone).Inaway–andthisgoesagainstallmyinstinctsasatranslator–
thebooksurvivesandiseven,Ithink,enrichedbytheinevitablespattering
offoreignwordsandexpressions,andtheequalspatteringoffootnotes.In
English,itremainswhatitis,astoryfromandaboutEastTimor.Hereisthe
penultimateparagraphofthebook,wheretheauthor’sfather,whoisliving
withhiminLisbon,hasjustreceivedpermissiontogoandliveinAustralia,
but dies before he can make the journey:

ChegouentãoatãodesejadacartadechamadaprovenientedaAustrália.Levei-
lheumdicionáriodeinglêsaseupedido.Tencionavarecuperaralínguaque
aprenderacomomalae-matam-balanda.Queamemóriatãopródigaem
reciclarassuntosnãorequisitadosforateimosaemdevolver-lheconven-
ientementeaspalavras.Irritado,trincavaosdentescomraiva,fechavaos
punhoscomquedavamurrosnoar,exercitando-senaartedemestredesilat,e
insultavaemmambai.MasosdiasquentesesecosdomêsdeJunhodepressalhe
dificultaramarespiração.Commedodeficarprivadodessaoportunidade
única,quisapressarovoo.Achavaquetinhaumamissãoacumprirna
Austráliacobrandoumadívidaantiga.Cortouocabelorente,fezabarbae
vestiuumfatonovo.Estavatrajadocomoumcobradordahistória.Foiàcidade
deLisboatirarasfotografiasparaopassaporte.Duasdiferentes,emposes
contrárias,comosefossemafrenteeoreverso.Opontodapartidaeofimda
travessia.Noregresso,nãoconseguiusubirasescadasqueolevavamparao
primeiroandar.Ficounorés-do-chãoàesperadaambulância.Asirena
repetitivaanunciavaosonhodesfeito.Noquartodohospitalsoletrou-me
vagamenteaosouvidososnomestrocadosdoscombatentesaustralianos.
Delegavaemmimasuatarefa.Quisodestinoquesecumprisseoenredo:
mate-bandera-hum.Umlençolbranco,comoumabandeiradespidadecores
edesímbolos,cobria-lheocorponuemoreno.Prontoparaencontrarocaminho
doretornoaomontedeCabalaqui.Amortedevolveu-lheomote.Oencantonão
passara de um autêntico rain-fila.(Cardoso, 1997: 153–4)
Thenthelonged-forletterofinvitationcamefromAustralia.Athis
requestItookhimanEnglishdictionary.Heintendedtobrushupon

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thelanguagehehadlearnedfromthemalae-matam-balanda*–the
foreignerwithpaleeyes.Buthismemory,soprodigalinrestoringto
himthingshedidnotrequire,resistedgivinghimconvenientaccessto
thewords.Hewouldgetirritatedandgrindhisteethwithrage,punch
theair,makingmoveshehadlearnedintheartofsilat,**cursingin
Mambae**.Butthehot,drydaysofJunesoonmadebreathingdifficult
forhim.Afraidthathewouldmissthisuniqueopportunity,hewanted
tocatchanearlierflight.HefeltthathehadamissioninAustralia,the
collectionofanolddebt.Hehadhishaircutveryshort,shavedoffhis
beardandboughtanewsuit.Hewasdressedlikeacollectornotof
taxesbutofhistory.HewentintoLisbontogethispassportphotos
taken.Twodifferentones,incontraryposes,asifofhisfrontandhis
back.Thepointofdepartureandtheendofthejourney.Whenhe
returned,hecouldnotclimbthestairstothefirstfloor.Hewaitedon
thegroundfloorfortheambulancetocome.Therepetitivesiren
announcedtheendofthedream.Inhishospitalroom,hetriedspelling
outtomethegarblednamesofAustraliansoldiers.Hedelegatedhis
tasktome.Hewantedfatetofinishtheplot:mate-bandera-hum.**A
whitesheet,likeaflagbereftofcoloursandsymbols,coveredhisbare,
brownbody.ReadytotaketheroadbackupMountCabalaqui.**Death
restoredhismottotohim.Thespellhehadbeenunderwasnothingbut
arain-fila.** (Jull Costa, 2000: 151–2)
* = reference explained here or elsewhere in text;
** = reference explained in glossary.
(These asterisks do not, of course, appear in the published text.)

AsIflounderedinthisfascinatingotherculture,andgraduallylearned

moreaboutit,whatwasbroughthometomewashowmuchtheEuropean
culturesfromwhichIusuallytranslatehaveincommon.Itmademerealise
theextenttowhich,asatranslator,Icanleaveculturalconceptsandrefer-
encesandevenwaysofthinkingunexplainedbecauseIcanrelyonreaders
beingsufficientlywell-read,well-educatedand,sometimes,well-travelled
tobeableto‘translate’thesethingsforthemselves.InthefirstexampleI
giveaboveofthetriptoSintradescribedinTheMaias,Idonotneedto
explainwhatandwhereSintraisbecauseByronand,sincehim,thousands
ofBritishtourists,havebeentherealready.MostreadersoftheTheCrossing,
ontheotherhand,wouldknownothingofEastTimor,itsgeography,its
languages,itsreligions,itshistory,andsoon.Thefootnotesinthattransla-
tionareliketheanswerstothemanyquestionsthatanyonewouldneedto
askwheninconversationwithsomeonefromaverydifferentculture.Inthe
EuropeannovelsIusuallytranslateandinthatoneEastTimoresebook,I
canalsorelyonthefactthatallofus,howeverunconsciously,translateand
interpretallthetime,whetheritbethelookonsomeone’sface,theiruseofa

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particularword,theirtoneofvoice,theirgestures,theirreferences,jokey
andotherwise.ThechoicesanddecisionsImakeasatranslatorwhenfaced
bytheapparentlyuntranslatableare,then,basedonmyownexperiencesof
thelanguagesandculturesIamtranslatingfromandinto,andalsoonmy
senseofwhatis‘universal’tothosehypotheticalreadersofthefinished
translation.Translationisitselfaculturallyspecificactivity.Eachtranslated
workisfilteredthroughoneparticularperson’simaginationandpercep-
tionandfixedinaparticulartime.Perhapsthisiswhy‘old’translations
seemoddorquaintordead,andthismayexplaintheneedfortheperiodic
re-translationofgreatworksoffiction.Timemoveson,thelandscapeofthe
past changes, language changes, and all must be re-imagined.

Note

1.In all cases emphasis is the author’s own.
2.TothoseunfamiliarwithSaramago’sbooks,Ishouldpointouthisrather

unusualapproachtocapitalisationandpunctuation.Hetendsnottocapitalise
propernames,forexample,here‘providential’,whichisthenameofthe
insurancecompany.Indialogues,hedoesnotusequotationmarks,question
marksorexclamationmarks,andonlyusesfullstopstosignaltheendofa
conversation.Acapitalletterindicatesanewspeaker.Forobviousreasons,most
dialogues, although not all, involve only two speakers.

References

Byron,LordG.G.(1902)ChildeHarold’sPilgrimage.Boston:FrancisA.Niccolls&Co.
Cardoso,L.(1997)CrónicadeUmaTravessia:AépocadoAi-Dik-Funam.Lisbon:

Publicações Dom Quixote.

Eça de Queiroz, J.M. (1888)Os Maias (23

edição).Lisbon: Livros do Brasil.

Jull Costa, M. (trans.) (1991)The Book of Disquiet. London: Serpent’s Tail.
JullCosta,M.(trans.)(2000)TheCrossing:AStoryofEastTimor.London:Granta

Publications.

Jull Costa, M. (trans.) (2006)Seeing. Harvill Secker: London.
Jull Costa, M. (trans.) (forthcoming)The Maias. Sawtry: Dedalus Books.
Patterson, C. (2006) Interview with Javier Marias.The Independent, 25 July.
Pessoa, F.(1982)Livro do desassossego. Lisbon: Publicações Europa-América.
Saramago, J. (2004)Ensaio sobre a lucidez.Lisbon: Editorial Caminho.

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Chapter 10

Alice in Denmark

VIGGO HJØRNAGER PEDERSEN AND KIRSTEN NAUJA ANDERSEN

Introduction

Oneofthemoststimulatingbooksonliterarytranslationofthe1990s

wasRomyHeylen’sTranslation,PoeticsandtheStageinwhichshedescribes
sixFrenchHamlettranslationsfromthe18thcenturyonwardsandtriesto
accountforthereasonsfortheirdifferences.Inherintroduction,she
outlinesa‘culturalmodeloftranslation’.Thethinkingisinthetraditionof
Toury(1980).Onemaynotagreewithallofit,butaconvincingcaseismade
forseeingliterarytranslationasacaseofnegotiationbetweentwoliterary
systems rather than as simply a linguistic operation:

Adescriptive,historicalmodeloftranslationgoesbeyondquestionsof
whetherandtowhatdegreeatranslationmatchesanoriginal;itinves-
tigatestheunderlyingconstraintsandmotivationsthatinformthe
translationprocess.Translationisateleologicalactivityofaprofoundly
transformativenature.Therefore,normativemodelsoftranslation
basedontheabsoluteconceptofequivalenceneedtobereplacedbya
historical-relativeandsocio-culturalmodeloftranslation.(Heylen,
1993: 5)

Perhaps‘supplementedby’ratherthan‘replacedby’wouldbemore

appropriatewhencomparingtherelativemeritsoftheconceptsofequiva-
lenceandculturalcorrespondence.ButHeylen’spointofviewisvalidas
farasitgoesandthecomparativestudyofthesixtranslationsisaneye-
opener–somuchsothatithasstimulatedustoundertakeananalogous
studyofcertainaspectsoftheworkoftheDanishtranslatorsofAlicein
Wonderland.

However,inadditiontodescribingthetranslationstrategiesofthetransla-

tors,wehaveventuredintothedubiousterritoryof‘thelimitsoftranslation’;
forthereisnodenyingthatnoneofthetranslationsisasgoodorasconvincing
astheoriginaland,inthischapter,weshallexplorethereasonswhy.

Althoughaverydemandingtexttotranslate,AliceinWonderland(1865)

hasbeentranslatedrepeatedlyintoforeignlanguages,andDanishisno
exception.Disregardingrevisededitionsandadaptationsincludingcartoon
versions, there are six Danish translations to consider:

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•Anon(D.G.):MariesHændelseriVidunderlandet.Copenhagen:Wøldike,

1875.

•KjeldElfelt:AliceiEventyrland(till1964:Æventyrland)ogBagSpejlet.

Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1946.

•EvaHemmerHansen:AliceiEventyrland.Copenhagen:Lademann,

1972.

•Mogens Boisen:Alicei Eventyrland. Copenhagen: Mallings, 1982.
•Franz Berliner:Alicei Eventyrland.Risskov: Klematis, 1999.
•Ejgil Søholm:Alicei Undreland. Copenhagen: Apostrof, 2000.

Inthefollowing,weshallgiveabriefaccountofallofthese.Carroll’stext

will be referred to as ‘LC’, the translations by their year of publication.

The Translations

Thefirst,anonymous,translationfrom1875stillseesEnglishasasome-

whatexoticlanguagefromanequallyexoticcountry,whichfewDaneshad
visitedatthattime.Hence‘Alice’ischangedtothefamiliar‘Marie’,andthe
location‘Vidunderlandet’(theLandofMarvels)iscoinedfortheoccasion–
noequivalentconceptexistedinDanishatthetime.Altogether,whilethe
translationisself-effacingrightdowntogivingtheinitialsratherthanthe
fullnameofthetranslator,andmostlyfollowingtheEnglishtextclosely,it
does,asweshallsee,inquitecreativewaystrytofindDanishequivalents
forphenomenaintheoriginalthatarenoteasilytransferred.Thusittriesto
renderEnglishsociolectsbycorrespondingDanishones,anditintroduces
aparodyofapopularDanishpoemtorenderCarroll’sparodyofanEnglish
one.

Thetranslationwasreissuedtwice(1912,1930),thelanguagebeing

modernised in the process.

KjeldElfelt’s(1946)translationofbothAlicebooks,mostrecently

reprintedin1977,hascometobeviewedasthestandardtranslation.Elfelt
(1902–1993)isapainstakingtranslator,althoughperhapsnotavery
creativeone.Hiscarefordetailscanbeseeninacorrectioninthesecond
andfollowingeditions,where‘AlicehavdeikkedetfjernesteBegrebom,hvad
BreddegradellerLængdegradvarfornoget’(‘AlicehadnoideawhatLatitude
wasorLongitudeeither’)ischangedto‘BreddegradogLængdegrad’–‘latitude
and(ratherthan‘or’)longitude’–whichistheidiomaticDanishsolution,
whereashisfirstattemptshowedinterferencefromEnglish.Ontheother
hand,Elfelthaslimitedsuccesswithtacklingmanyofthepunsandother
linguistic difficulties of the original.

ThepoemsinElfelt’seditionaretranslatedbyMogensJermiinNissen

(1906–1972), whose version is probably the best there is in Danish.

EvaHemmerHansen(1913–1983)wasawell-knownDanishwriterand

translatorwithseveralnovelsandanalmostcompleteDickenstranslation

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tohercredit.Asatranslator,sheisverycreative,especiallyinrendering
puns,butforthatveryreason,attimesseemsalittletoocontrived(seethe
example under ‘Linguistic problems’ below).

MogensBoisen’sAlice,from1982,inspiteofitstitle,isinfactnotatrans-

lationofAliceinWonderland,butofAlice’sAdventuresUnderground(1865).
Thismeansthatthistextisshorterthantheothers.However,forthetransla-
tionofspecificwordsandphrasesinthediscussionbelowthesource
languagetextisidenticalwiththatofthepublishednovel,insofaras
Boisen’ssourceincludestheiteminquestion.MogensBoisen(1910–87)
wasoneoftheleadingtranslatorsofhistime,withmorethan800transla-
tionstohiscredit.Famedamongotherthingsforthethreeversionsofhis
translationofJamesJoyce’sUlysses,hewasanythingbutanonymous.Ina
postscripthestatesthathehasfeltobligedtoleaveoutsomepuns,and
acknowledgesthat,likeElfelt,hehasnotbeenabletorenderallthedetails
oftheoriginal.Thedrawbackofthisstrategy,ofcourse,isitsdefensiveness:
ifthepunsandallusionsomittedarenotcompensatedforbytheintroduc-
tion of new ones, the translation will appear poorer than the original.

FranzBerliner(1930–)isaDanishwriterandtranslator.Inanintroduc-

tiontohistranslation(Berliner,1999),whichisaninternationalco-produc-
tionwithillustrationsbyLisbethZwerger,Berlinerstateshisintentionof
keepingascloselyaspossibletoCarroll’stext,‘evenwhencuriousasides,
hiddenanddistortedquotations,puns,and‘reversed’logicmakeitdiffi-
cult’.HeaddsaDanishpun,andprobablyanindirectcriticismofHemmer
Hansen,that‘Hvismanfordanskerformeget,kandetheleblivemegetfordansk’
(‘ifyou“Danish”ittoomuch,itmaybecomemuchtooDanish’).Conse-
quently,histextisafairlyliteraltranslation,whichmeansthatpunsare
oftenlostandwholesequencesattimesbecomealmostmeaningless,asfor
instanceinthedescriptionofunderwaterschoollife.Ontheotherhand,the
textisgood,colloquialmodernDanish,andBerlinerhascontributedsome
goodtranslationsofanumberofthepoems,whilechoosinganedited
versionofJerminNissenforYouareOld,FatherWilliamandacoupleofother
prominent poems.

EjgilSøholm(1936–2002),journalist,writerandtranslator,broughtthe

textuptodate,oftenchoosingquitecolloquialsolutions.Healsoinvents
quiteafewcompensatorypuns,asinDuergammel,FarVilhelm,wherethe
sonasks,‘hvordanku’duædeenandietrap?’(‘howcouldyoueataduckat
onego?’),punningontheverbatrappe(toquack),andthephraseietrap
(‘withoutintermission,quickly’).However,Søholmtriestostayascloseto
Denmark’scoastaspossible,leavingoutorchangingmanyspecificrefer-
encestothingsEnglish,andevenchangingnames,suchas‘William’to
‘Vilhelm’. In some cases, his text seems influenced by Berliner’s.

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Problem Types: Time, Place, Culture, Language

HjørnagerPedersen(1980)operateswiththeparametersoftime,place,

cultureandlanguagewhentryingtoassesstherelativedifficultyof
differenttranslationsituations.Thismodelisusedinthefollowing,which,
however,isalsoindebtedtoAliceiIngenmandsland(Andersen,1993),where
thetranslationproblemsencounteredinAlicearealsodividedintoa
numberofcategories.Andersen’stheoryderivesinparticularfroma
discussionofReiss’sdistinctionbetweencontent-orientedproblemsonthe
onehandandtimeandspace-orientedonesontheother(Reiss,1993:19ff),
Newmark’sdistinctionbetween‘transference’and‘componentialanalysis’
(Newmark,1988:81)andNida’sconceptofdynamicequivalence(quoted
inNida&Taber,1974:24).Thisinturn,formsthebasisfortheattempt,in
thefollowing,tosplituptheproblemsthataDanishtranslatorofCarroll’s
workwouldencounterintoanumberofdifferentcategories,thoughweare
wellawarethatthereisconsiderableoverlap,forexamplebetweencultural
andlinguistictranslationproblems.Manyoftheexamplesaretakenfrom
Andersen (1993).

Time

Thetranslationsspanaperiodof125yearsfrom1875to2000;thefirstis

almostcontemporarywiththeoriginal,whereasthelastismorethana
centurylater.Needlesstosay,thefirsttranslatorhadsomeadvantagesin
thatmanyfeaturesofthereceptorcultureweresimilartothoseoftheorig-
inal,suchasinsistingonamorerestrainedbehaviourforgirlsthanforboys,
andhavingmiddleclassfamilieswithresidentservants.Ontheotherhand,
aswehaveobservedabove,in1875EnglandwasveryexotictoDanes,and
hereweseetheparadoxicalsituationthatthecloserwecometothepresent,
the more familiar does the English context become.

Oneproblemthatisverydependentonthetimeaspectistherelation-

ship between the little girl and her nurse (or teacher):
LC:

‘Miss Alice! Come here directly, and get ready for your walk!’
‘Coming in a minute, nurse!’ (p. 56).

1875:

Naar Barnepigen sagde:‘Frøken Marie! Kom og gjør Dem i Stand
til at spadsere!’–‘Jeg skal straks komme’(p. 35).

1946:

Naar Barnepgen sagde:‘Alice! Kom her... og klæd dig paa, vi skal
ud og spadsere!’–‘Jeg kommer straks!’(p. 36).

1972:

‘Alice! Kom hjem med det samme og fådit overtøj på, vi skal ud at
gåtur!’‘Jeg kommer om lidt’(p. 13f).

1982

‘LilleAlice, vil du straks tage overtøjet på.Viskal ud at gåtur’‘Ja,
det skal jeg nok, frøken(p. 30).

1999:

‘Frøken Alice, kom og fåovertøj påtil spadsereturen!’–‘Kommer
straks!’(p. 27).

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2000:

‘Kom nuAlice, se at fåfrakken på, vi skal ud at gåtur!’–‘Ja-ja, jeg
kommer lige om lidt ...’ (p. 56).

Inthe1875translation,aswellasintheoriginal,thenurseaddressesthe

childas‘Miss/Frøken’.Thisisdroppedin1946,andin1972thetone
becomesmoreperemptory,whereasitgrowsmilderagainin1982(‘Lille
Alice’).Itisnotquiteclearin1982and2000whoAlice’sinterlocutoris.
‘Frøken’of1982mightindicateateacherorkindergartenassistant,andin
anycasethe‘frøken’representsareversalofroles:nowitisthechildwhois
respectfultoanadult(in2000therespectissomewhatreduced).Thusthe
onlytranslationofferingfullcultural(andlinguistic)equivalenceisthe
first,1875,thoughthe1999translationcomesclosebyreintroducing
‘Frøken’ (Miss) as applied to Alice.

Place

SouthernEnglandisbasicallynotverydifferentfromDenmark,conse-

quentlytherearenodifficultiesofthekindencounteredwhentranslators
havetoconveyanimpressionofarcticortropicalsceneryunknownto
untravelledWesterners.Moreover,fantasyliteratureoftentakesplaceina
non-descriptworldthatcannoteasilybelocatedonamap.Nevertheless,
therearesometrickyreferencestoEngland,whichistheassumedback-
groundifnottheactualscenethroughout,themoreso,becausethereisa
greatertendencytolocaliseliteratureforchildrenthanliteratureforadults
(cf.HjørnagerPedersen,2004:69).Onesuchreferenceappearsinthelobster
quadrille, with its longing for foreign parts:
LC:

‘What matters it how far we go?’ his scaly friend replied.
‘There is another shore, you know, upon the other side. The
further off from England the nearer is to France – Then turn
not pale, beloved snail, but come and join the dance’ (p. 134).

1875:

‘Hvad siger det, hvor langt vi gaa?’saa svarede dens Ven,‘Er der
ikke en anden Kyst hvor vi ville komme hen?Fjærne vi os fra
Sjællands Strand, ville vi jo snart med Glans! betræde Skaanes,
derfor kom og faa dig en lille Dans!’(p. 120).

1946:

‘Hvad betyder dog den lange Vej,’bedyrede hans Ven,‘for der
findes jo en anden Kyst, hvor sagtens man når hen. Er du alt for
langt fra vores, gir den næste dig en Tjans–altsåikke blive bleg,
min Ven, men kom og faa en Dans!’(p. 95).

1972:

The text is completely changed, and this stanza is not trans-
lated. There are a number of new puns like ‘sådan går vor
livsens dans alt for tit i fisk’(‘Thus the dance of our lives all too
often comes to nothing’ – ‘gåi fisk’is an idiom that literally
means ‘disappear into [or be eaten by] fish’).

1982:

Not included.

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1999:

Almost identical with 1946.

2000:

‘Pyt da med, hvor langt vi kommer ud!’sa’sneglens fiskeven,
‘Vi har ovelevet hver gang, og du klarer det med glans!
Der er andre lande, mange steder mankankomme hen.
Komnu,komnu,særesneglogtræddenvildehummerdans(p.167).

Aswillbeseen,mostofthetranslatorshavechosenaneutraltranslation

thatdoesnotnecessitatereferencestotheChanneloranyothergeograph-
icallocation.1875,however,substitutestheSoundfortheChannel,and
Scania for France, thus localising the text.

Culture

Thereareseveralsubheadingsinthiscategoryand,aswehaveseen,it

necessarilyoverlapswiththeprecedingcategories,becausecultureis
dependentontimeandplace.Inthefollowing,weshalldiscusssome
prominentexamplesofculturalproblemareastypicalofAlice:thetrans-
ference(ornot)ofmaterialandsocialphenomena,allusions,andstylistic
level(s).

Material culture markers: Food

ThereareseveralreferencestofoodinAlice,andsomeofthethings

mentionedarenotDanish,andseem–oratleastmusthaveseemed–rather
strange.WhenAlicecomparesthetasteofoneofhermagicpotionsto‘cus-
tard,pineapple,roastturkey,toffyandhotbutteredtoast’(LC,p.31)she
referstophenomenawellknowninEnglandatthetime.Butcustardand
hotbutteredtoastwereunknowninDenmark(theformerstillis),andinthe
1875translation,flødekage(‘pancakewithcream’)isnomoreanequivalent
ofcustardthanristetSmørrebrød(‘roastbread-and-butter’)isfortoast;and
although‘kalkunsteg’isamoreorlessliteralrenderingofroastturkey,the
translationdoesnotrefertosomethingwell-knowntoandlikedbychil-
dren.Atrueequivalentwouldratherbeandesteg(‘roastduck’)whichisa
typicallyDanishdish.Atleastfortoast,thesituationhaschanged.Inour
internationalworld,everymiddle-classchildknowswhattoastis,andthe
EnglishwordisfrequentlyusedinDanish.Buteven1999keepsthefaintly
exoticvarmt ristet brød med smør(‘hot roasted bread with butter’).

Social culture markers: Schools

TheMockturtle’saccountofitsschooldaysobviouslyreferstotypically

19thcenturypublicschooleducation,whichisfarfromtheexperienceof
mostDanishchildren,especiallytoday.Someoftheproblemsarelinguistic,
andwillbedealtwithbelow,butsomearesocial.Forinstance,Danishhas
nowordfor‘dayschool’,becausethispresupposes‘boardingschool’,
whichisaveryunusualphenomenoninDenmark.1875simplytranslates
‘skole’ (school), which gets only part of the meaning of the original.

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Allusion

Alltextspresupposeacertainamountofknowledgeonthepartofthe

recipientsofthematterstheyreferto.Needlesstosay,thesepresupposi-
tionsdonotnecessarilyholdfortherecipientsofatranslatedtext.Inthe
examplebelowtherearetwoproblems,whichthevarioustranslatorshave
chosentotackleindifferentways.First,thereisanallusiontoWilliamthe
Conquerorand‘1066andallthat’whichacontemporaryEnglishschool-
childwouldknowabout,andsecondly,theframeofreferenceisEnglish:it
isnotverymeaningfultotalkabout‘understandingEnglish’(1972,1999),
when the text is in Danish.
LC:

‘Perhaps it doesn’t understand English,’ thought Alice. ‘I
daresay it’s a French mouse, come over with William the
Conqueror’ (p. 41).

1875:

‘Maaske forstaar den ikke Dansk’, tænkte Marie, ‘det er bestemt en
fransk Mus, der er kommen her til Landet med de franske
Hjælpetropper’(p. 21f).

1946:

‘Den forstaar maaske ikke, hvad jeg siger,’tænkteAlice.Det er
bestemt en fremmed Mus, der er kommet her til Landet...’ (p. 23).

1972:

‘Den forstår måske ikke Engelsk,’tænkte Alice.‘Det er måske en
fransk mus, der er kommet hertil med Vilhelm Erobreren’(p. 7).

1982:

‘Den forstår måske ikke dansk,’tænkte Alice.‘Det kan være, at den
er amerikansk. Der er jo såmange amerikanske turister’(p. 18).

1999:

‘Måske forstår den ikke engelsk’, tænkte Alice. ‘Det er nok en fransk
mus, der er kommet over med Vilhelm Erobreren’(p. 18).

2000:

‘Måske forstår den ikke sproget’, tænkte Alice.‘Det er sikkert en
fransk mus, der er kommet over sammen med Vilhelm Erobreren’
(p. 34).

Aswillbeseen,earlytranslationssubstitute‘Danish’for‘English’,or

leaveoutthespecificreference,whereassomeofthemorerecentoneskeep
‘English’.1875replaces‘William’withareferencetotheNapoleonicwars,
whenNapoleonicauxiliarytroopswerestationedinDenmark.Butin1946
thisreferencewasnolongerfelttoberelevant,andmorerecenttranslations
staywith‘William’,althoughDanishchildrenarenotlikelytoknowmuch
abouthim.Anexceptionis1982,whichsubstitutes‘Americantourists’for
‘Norman marauders’.

Aspecialproblemisthepoemsthatareparodiesofwell-knownEnglish

poems.Amoreorlessdirecttranslation,whichmosttranslator’stry(such
as‘Youareold,FatherWilliam’)obviouslylosestheallusiontoRobert
Southey’s‘TheOldMan’sComfortsandHowheGainedThem’(seethe
AnnotatedAlice,Carroll,1981:69–70).However,1875and1972sometimes
useadifferentstrategy,modellingtheirversions(whichthenceasetobe
translations,strictlyspeaking)onpopularDanishpoems.Thus1972trans-

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lates‘Howdoesthegentlecrocodile’with‘sedenlillekokodille’,alludingtoa
popularDanishchildren’ssong,Sedenlillekattekilling(‘lookatthelittle
kitten’). (For 1875, see endnote 1.)

Stylistic levels

HjørnagerPedersen(2004)frequentlyreferstothefactthattheaverage

literarystyleinVictorianfictionforchildrenwasatahigherlevelthanthat
foundinDenmark,andcertainlyhigherthanisfoundinmodernDanish
texts.Eveniftheextractfromahistorytextbookin‘TheCaucusRace’isnot
children’sfiction,itisstillatexttowhichchildrenmightbesubjected,andit
presents certain difficulties for most translators.
LC:

This is the driest thing I know ... ‘William the Conqueror,
whose cause was favoured by the Pope ...’ (p. 46).

1875:

Changes the text, so that it no longer deals with history, but
politics instead.

1946:

‘Dette er noget af det tørreste, jeg kender ... Jeg vil holde et historisk
Foredrag om Vilhelm Erobreren–altså, Vilhelm Erobreren, hvis sag
fandt støtte hos Paven ...’(p. 26).

1972:

‘såkommer den tørreste beretning. ... Vilhelm Erobreren, hvis sag
støttedes af paven ...’(p. 9).

1982:

‘Iskalnuhøredettørreste,jegnogensindeselvharhørt....Det
drejersigometstykkeafEnglandshistorie.Detforholdtsigsåledes,
atVilhelmErobreren,hvissagstøttedesafpaven...’(p.22).

1999:

‘Høm!’sagde musen med en vigtig mine.‘Er I klar? Det her er det
mest tørre, jeg kender. Måjeg bede om fuldstsændig stilhed! Hør så:
Vilhelm Erobreren, hvis sag blev støttet af paven ...’(p. 21).

2000:

‘H-hm!’begyndte musen og såsig om med en vigtig mine.‘Er I
klar alle sammen? Det her er det mest knastørre, jeg kender. Ro i
lejren, om jeg måbede!’Og såstartede musen påsit foredrag.
‘VilhelmErobreren,somhospavenfandtstøtteforsinsag...’(p.42).

Itappearsthatseveraltranslatorsfinditnecessarytowritealittleintro-

ductiontotheparagraphonWilliam.Ontheotherhand,thelanguagein
theactualtexttendstobelessformalthanintheEnglishoriginal,for
example in 2000, which avoids the passive of the first clause:
LC:

‘William the Conqueror, whose cause was favoured by the
pope, was soon submitted to by the English, who wanted
leaders, and had been of late much accustomed to usurpation
and conquest’ (p. 46).

2000:

‘Vilhelm Erobreren, som hos paven fandt støtte for sin sag, ham
underkastede englænderne sig snart, fordi de savnede ledere og på
det sidste havde været udsat for gentagne tilfælde af magtmisbrug
og erobringsforsøg.’

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However,Carrollalsointroducesdialectandnon-standardspeech(the

rabbit’sservant,theGriffin)forcomiceffect,somethingthatonly1875
consistently tries to imitate:
LC:

‘Sure I’m here! Digging for apples, yer honour! ... Sure it’s an
arm, yer honour! (He pronounced it ‘arrum’.) Sure it does,
yer honour, but it’s an arm for all that’ (p. 60)

1875:

‘Nu kommer jeg! Jeg graver Kantøfler op, husbond! Det er min
Sandten en Arm, Husbond! ... Ja, såSkam gør den inte, men det er
illigeveller en Arm’(p. 27)

1946:

‘Jeg er her–nu kommer jeg!Jeg graver efter Æbler, deres Naade! ...
Det er min Sandten en Arm, Deres Naade! Ja, det gør det, Deres
Naade, men deter nu lige godt en Arm!’(p. 38)

1972:

‘Nu kommer jeg! Jeg graver efter Æbler, deres Naade! ... Det er min
Sandten en Arm, Deres Naade! Det gør jeg ganske vist Deres
Naade, men det er nu alligevel en Arm!’(p. 27)

1982:

‘Jamen a er da her og graver efter æbler, Deres Velbårenhed! ... Det
er en arm, Deres Velbårenhed! ... Jow, jow, Deres Velbårenhed, men
det er nu alligevel en arm!’(p. 34)

2000:

‘Her,DeresVelburenhed!Jegerudeatgraveæblerop!’...‘Deteren
arm,DeresVelburenhed!’(Sådanudtaltehannudetfineord)...(p.62)

Here,the1875translationisgoodatfindingDanishdialectequivalents

fortheEnglish–andKantøfler,standardDanishKartofler(‘potatoes’),isin
alllikelihoodwhatthegardenerisdiggingfor,cf.Frenchpommedeterre.But
tosomeextentallthetranslationstrytoimitatethegardener’snon-stan-
dardlanguage,unlikethefollowingexample,whereonly1875usesdialect:
LC:

‘It’s all her fancy, that: they never executes nobody, you know
... ’ (p. 125f).

1875:

‘Det er nu hendes Kjæphest; de hugge slets inte Hoveder af, nej
Skam gjør de ej ...’(p. 110).

1946:

‘Det er noget, hun bilder sig ind–der er ingen, som bliver
halshugget!’(p. 88).

1972:

‘Det er alt sammen indbildning–der er aldrig nogen, der bliver
henrettet ...’(p. 40f).

1982:

‘Fantasien løber af med hende, for sagen er, at der aldrig bliver
henrettet nogen...’(p. 62).

1999:

‘Deterfantasialtsammen–dehenretterfaktiskaldrignogen’(p.74).

2000:

‘... Det er bare noget, hun bilder sig ind. I virkeligheden er der

aldrig nogen, der bliver halshugget’(p. 156).

Linguistic problems

InAlice,precisionisinsistedupon,althoughnotalwaysachieved.As

HumptyDumptyremindsus,‘WhenIuseaword...itmeansjustwhatI

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chooseittomean–neithermorenorless.’Butfrequently,wordsinAlice
havetocarrymorethanonemeaning.Forreasonsofspace,weshallhere
confineourselvestooneexampleofapunandthedifficultiesitpresentsfor
translators.

TheGriffin’saccountofitsschooldays,whichapparentlyresembled

thoseofthetypicalpublicschoolboyatthetime,offersseveralexamples.
Forinstance,theGriffin’steacherwascalledTortoise(taughtus),andthe
number of lessons ‘lessened’ (that is decreased) every day.
LC:

‘ThemasterwasanoldTurtle–weusedtocallhimTortoise–’
(p. 127).

1875:

‘Skolelæreren var en gammel Søpadde – vi plejede at kalde ham
‘Landpadden’(p. 112).

1946:

‘Vores Lærer var en gammel Skildpadde–vi kaldte ham for
Sildesnuden...’

(p. 90).

1972:

‘Da vi var børn [...] blev vi sendt påSorøAkvademi hos doktor
DermatycholosCoriacea–vikaldtehamGamleLæderpadde–’

(p.41).

1982:

Leavesoutmostofthisandalsothefollowingspeeches(p.64).

1999:

Like 1982 (p. 76).

2000:

’Vores lærer var en gammel havpadde, som vi drenge plejede af
kalde Landpadden’(p. 158).

Generally,Danishtranslatorsgiveupwhentheycometothejokeabout

lessonslessening;andthefavouritesolutiontothe‘Tortoiseproblem’is
eithertoleaveitoutortosubstituteadifferentwordlike‘landpadde’for
‘søpadde’,explainingthatotherwiseitwouldnotbeanickname–true,but
not really satisfactory in the context.

Conclusion

Theabovecursoryinvestigationunfortunatelyyieldsafairlynegative

result:noneoftheDanishtranslationsreallylivesuptotheoriginal.Itisour
assumptionthatthisisduetoatleasttwofactors.Thefirstisabasicdiffer-
encebetweentheconventionsgoverningtheuseof‘nonsense’inEnglish
andDanish,perhapsmostclearlyseeninthesubstitutioninthefirstDanish
translation,ofapointlessparodyof‘KonenmedÆggene’fortheoriginal’s
wickedcrocodile(seeendnote1).Thesecondfactorisanunwillingnessin
practicetoliveuptothedemandsofculturaladaptation.Tosucceedas
worksofart,theDanishtextswouldreallyhaveneededtodepartmuch
moredrasticallyfromtheEnglishthantheydo,consistentlysubstituting
Danishsituations,jokesandpunsfortheEnglishonesoftheoriginal;but
then,ofcourse,theywouldnolongerhavebeenaboutAlicebutMarie,a
strategy that only 1875 employs, and that only in part.

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Notes

1.Itreplaces‘howdoththelittlecrocodile’with‘KonenmedÆggene’(abouta

womantakingabasketofeggstomarket)wherethelinesaregarbled,but
without the malicious undertone of Carroll’s original.

2.Sildesnuden,literally‘theHerringSnout’,preparesforthepunwithwhichthatof

theoriginalhasbeenreplaced.Thereasonforthename,wearetold,isthat‘vifik
paaSnuden,naarvikomforsilde’,i.e.theywerebeatenwhenbeinglate;‘fåpå
snuden’and‘kommeforsilde’areidiomaticDanishphrases(thoughthelatteris
dated).

3.Thispunson‘SorøAkademi’,oneoftheveryfewDanishpublicschools.‘Læder’

(leather)inthenicknameshouldbepronounced‘læ’er’,thusbecoming
indistinguishable from a rapid pronunciation of ‘lærer’, teacher.

References

Andersen,K.(1993)AliceiIngenmandsland.Prize-awardedthesis,Copenhagen

University.

Anon (D.G.) (1875)Maries Hændelser i Vidunderlandet.Copenhagen: Wøldike.
Berliner, F.(1999)Alice i Eventyrland.Risskov: Klematis.
Boisen, M. (1982)Alice i Eventyrland. Copenhagen: Mallings.
Carroll,L.(1960/1970/1981)TheAnnotatedAlice:Alice’sAdventuresinWonderland&

ThroughtheLookingGlass(M.Gardner,ed.).Harmondsworth:Penguin.(Reference
is made to the 1981 edition.)

Elfelt,K.(1946)AliceiEventyrland(till1964:Æventyrland)ogBagSpejlet.Copenhagen:

Gyldendal.

Hemmer Hansen, E. (1972)Alice i Eventyrland. Copenhagen: Lademann.
Heylen, R. (1993)Translation, Poetics and the Stage. London: Routledge.
HjørnagerPedersen,V.(1980)Towardsatheoryofliterarytranslation.InS.Hanon

andV.HjørnagerPedersen(eds)HumanTranslation:MachineTranslation.NOK39
(pp. 7–18). Odense University.

HjørnagerPedersen,V.(2004)UglyDucklings?StudiesintheEnglishTranslationsof

HansChristianAndersen’sTalesandStories.Odense:UniversityPressofSouthern
Denmark.

Newmark, P.(1988)ATextbook of Translation. Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall.
Nida,E.A.andTaber,C.A.(1974)TheTheoryandPracticeofTranslation.Leiden:Brill.
Reiss,K.(1971)MöglichkeitenundGrenzenderÜbersetzungskritik.München:Hueber.
Søholm, E. (2000)Alice i Undreland. Copenhagen: Apostrof.
Toury, G. (1980)In Search of a Theory of Translation. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University.

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Chapter 11

LittleSnowdropandTheMagicMirror:
Two Approaches to Creating a
‘Suitable’ Translation in 19th-Century
England

NIAMH CHAPELLE AND JENNY WILLIAMS

Introduction

Inthischapterwedemonstratehowtwotranslatorsin19th-century

Englandadoptedverydifferentapproachestobridgingthesamecultural
divide.TheybothtranslatedtheGrimms’fairytaleSneewittchen(Snow
White)intoEnglish,usingthe1857editionofthetale,andtheirtranslations
appearedwithinnomorethan11yearsofeachother.Bothweretranslating
foryoungpeopleandintheprefacestotheirtranslationstheyeach
emphasisedthepainstheyhadtakentoensurethattheirtranslationswere
suitablefortheiraudienceintermsofbothstyleandcontent.Yetdespitethe
similarityoftheiraimsandintendedreadership,thetranslatorsproduced
twoverydifferenttranslations:LittleSnowdrop(1863)andTheMagicMirror
(1871/1874).Thereasonsforthismustbesoughtintworadicallydifferent
definitionsof‘suitability’which,inturn,canbeexplainedbythedifferent
approachestowritingandtranslationadoptedbythetwotranslators
concernedandtheirverydifferentattitudestowardstheirtargetaudience.

The Translations

LittleSnowdropisoneof12GrimmtalesincludedinTheFairyBook.The

BestPopularFairyStories.SelectedandRenderedAnewbytheAuthorof‘John
HalifaxGentleman’firstpublishedbyMacmillaninLondonin1863andre-
issuedinvariouseditionsupto2003.TheauthorofJohnHalifaxGentleman
(1856)wasDinahMariaMulock(1826–1887),knownafterhermarriagein
1865asMrsGeorgeLillieCraik,averypopularnovelistandwriterinmid-
to-lateVictorianBritain.Givenherprominenceasawriter,itissurprising
thatMulock’stranslationsoftheGrimms’talesarenotmentionedinanyof
thestandardworksonthetranslationhistoryoftheGrimms’talesin
English:Morgan(1938),Alderson(1993)andSutton(1996).Itcanbe

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assumedthatMulockwasresponsiblebothforre-translatingandediting
the tales (Chapelle, 2001: 125–126).

Thesecondtranslation,TheMagicMirror,isoneof130translationsof

GrimmtalespublishedbyFrederickWarneandCompanyunderthetitle
GrimmsFairyTales.Thepublishingdateismostlikelytohavebeenbetween
1871and1874(Chapelle,2001:144–5).Thetitlepageinformsthereaderthat
the collection is ‘a new translation by Mrs H.H.B. Paull’.

MrsPaull’stranslationsofGrimms’taleshavereceivednegativeevalua-

tionsfromthecritics.Morgan(1938:181)accusesheroftaking‘unwarrantable
liberties’.Alderson(1985:5)describesPaull’stranslationsas‘inaccurate
andstilted’.Sutton(1996:255)criticisesherworkas‘ablatantdistortionof
theGrimms’ownnarrative’.However,MrsPaull’stranslationshave
provedtobeoneofthemostpopularGrimmcollectionsinEnglish,having
appearedindifferenteditionsforoveronehundredyearssincetheirfirst
appearance, most recently in 1996 (Owens, 1996).

The Translators

DinahMulock,laterMrsCraik,wrotemorethan20novels,12children’s

booksandmorethan150shortstoriesandessays.Herpoemswere
collectedinfourvolumes,includingoneofchildren’sverse.Shealso
producedthreevolumesoftravelnarrativeandtranslatedthreeFrench
novels.ShewasapersonalfriendofthepublisherAlexanderMacmillan
whopublishedTheFairyBook,hersecondbookforchildren.Herfirst,Alice
Learmont(1852),wasoneofseveraloriginalfairytalesandfantasiesshe
wroteforayoungaudience.Between1849and1855,shealsowrotefive
moral stories for children (Mitchell, 1983).

WhileverylittleisknownaboutMrsHenryH.B.Paull’slife,heroutput

asachildren’swriterwasprodigious:theBritishLibraryCataloguelists
some50publicationswhichappearedunderhernamebetween1855and
1890.Thetitlepageofher1855publicationrevealsthatshewasalsothe
authorofatleasttwoschoolbooks.Inadditiontotheseshetranslateda
selectionofAndersen’sDanishtales,HansAndersen’sFairyTales(1867)and
J.D. Wyss’sThe Swiss Family Robinson(1888).

DinahMulockandMrsPaulladoptedtwoverydifferentapproachesto

writingforchildren.Mulock’staleswerenotovertlymoralisticor
cautionary.Rather,theysoughttoimpartmoralsbyappealingtochildren’s
feelingsandimagination.In1860,MulockpublishedanessayinMacmillan’s
Magazineentitled‘TheAgeofGold’inwhichshediscusses‘thecharacter,
toneandmannermostsuitableforchildren’sbooks’(Mulock,1860:295).
Mulockbelievedthat‘nopreachingshouldbeadmissible’inachildren’s
bookandcriticisesthe‘floodofmoralandreligiousliteraturewithwhich
ourhaplessinfantsarenowoverwhelmed’.Mulockexpressesdisdainfor

Little Snowdrop and The Magic Mirror

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talesinwhichthenarratorisconstantlypresenttopointoutthemoraland
sheunderlinestheimportanceofcultivatingchildren’simaginativecapaci-
ties.InMulock’sview(1860:298),moralsshouldbeimparted‘byimplica-
tionratherthandirectadmonition’.Ifatalehasimaginativeappeal,
childrenwillnaturallyabsorblessonsof‘heroism,self-denial,patience,and
love’.Sheviewedfairytalesasidealreadingmatterforyoungchildren:‘the
generaltenorofold-fashionedfairy-lore...furnishesasmuchmoral
teaching as can well be taken in at the age of six or seven’.

MrsPaullwasundoubtedlypartofthewaveofchildren’sauthors

Mulockcriticisedinher1860article.Sheveryclearlymouldedherchil-
dren’sstoriesaroundthemoralsshewishedtoimpart.Thetitlesofher
booksoftenrevealthelessontobelearned,forexampleMaryElton;orSelf-
Control(1869)andSchooldayMemories;or‘CharityEnviethNot’(1876).The
narratorisalsoever-presenttoprovidemoralinstruction,andPaull
frequentlyaddressesherreadersdirectlytoprovideunambiguousmoral
interpretationsofevents.Themoralsinhertaleswereusuallybasedon
biblicalauthorityandseveralwerepublishedbytheReligiousTractSociety
andtheSundaySchoolUnion.Mostofherschoolstoriesanddomestic
dramasarethinly-disguisedallegoricalwarningsagainstpride,envy,
vanity,conceitandjealousy,whichmustbeovercomebystrongfaith,piety
andsalvationthroughpunishment.Paullviewedherreadersnotas
Mulock’s‘haplessinfants’butratherasnaturallyhaving‘naughty,spiteful
tempers’ and needing to be taught self-control (Paull, 1890: 82).

AccordingtoMelroseandGardner(1996:44)‘Twomainviewsofthe

childco-existedthroughoutthe19thcentury:eitherchildrenwerenaturally
naughtyandsoinneedofreform;ortheywerepure,andthereforerequired
protectionfromevilinfluences;eitherwayguidingandteachingwere
considerednecessary’.Kane(1995:45)similarlydividesVictorianattitudes
tochildrenintotheviewofthechild’ssoulonthebrinkofdamnation,and
theviewthatachild’ssoulshouldbekeptinnocentanduntouched.Paull
clearlysubscribestothefirstofthesetwoviews.Mulock,meanwhile,
wouldappeartofitmoreintothesecondcategoryofwriter,viewingchildren
as‘hapless’andinneedofprotection.However,sheseemstohavebeenless
concernedwithshelteringchildrenfromevilthanfromthehugewaveof
moralisticfictionthatwaspartofthereligiouspublishingboomthattook
placeinEnglandinthemiddleofthe19thcentury.Shewasalsoconcerned
withfeedingratherthanstiflingchildren’simaginativecapacities.

The Prefaces: Definitions of ‘Suitability’

Intheprefacesandparatextualmaterialofthetranslations,bothare

presentedassuitablereadingmaterialforchildren.Anadvertisementatthe
frontofMulock’sTheFairyBookstatesthatit‘willbefoundpeculiarlyadapted

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forpresentsandschoolprizes’.ThetitlepageofPaull’scollection,mean-
while,announcesthatthetaleshavebeen‘speciallyadaptedandarrangedfor
young people’.

Inherpreface,Mulockexplainsthatallofthe‘foreign’talesinthecollec-

tionhavebeen‘re-translated,condensed,andinanyotherneedfulwaymade
suitableformodernBritishchildren’.InthefirstparagraphofPaull’spreface,
sheexpressesthehopethathertranslationswillbe‘approved’byherread-
ership.Inthefinalparagraph,sheexpressesthehopethatherGrimmtrans-
lationswillnotonlybe‘asuitablecompanionvolumetothoseofHans
Andersen,butalsoreallyacceptabletohouseholds,astheirtitleof“House-
hold Stories” seems to imply’.

Inbothcases,suitabilityreferstoappropriatenessofstyle,contentand

moraltone.Bothtranslatorsexplainthatstylisticimprovementswere
necessary.Paullstatesexplicitlythatshehasbeen‘mostcarefulto[...]
rendertheEnglishphraseologysimpleandpurebothinstyleand
tendency’(Paull,1871/1874:iv).Mulock,meanwhile,statesthat,unlikethe
‘foreign’talesshetranslated,shewasunabletoimproveuponthefew‘real
oldEnglishfairytales’inthecollectionandshepraisestheir‘charming
Saxonsimplicityofstyle’.Interestingly,Paullsimilarlypraises‘good
simpleSaxonEnglish’inherprefacetohertranslationofTheSwissFamily
Robinson(Paull, 1888: v).

Bothtranslatorsalsopointoutthattheyhavebeencarefultoomit

harmfulorunsuitableelementsofcontent.Mulockassuresadultreaders
thatshehasbeen‘especiallycarefulthatthetalesshouldcontainnothing
whichcouldreallyharmachild’(Mulock,1863:viii).Paull,meanwhile,
explainsthatshehasomitted‘averyfew’ofthetalesdeemed‘notexactly
suitedtoyoungEnglishreaders’.Thisisquiteanunderstatement,asSutton
(1996:233)hascalculatedthatPaullomittednolessthan83tales.This
approachwasverymuchinkeepingwiththepolicyofFrederickWarneto
offer‘wholesomeentertainment’.Inannouncingthepublicationofthe
ArabianNightsEntertainmentintheirMonthlyListforSeptember1865,for
example,thepublisherassuredpotentialreadersthat‘theEditorhasbeen
abletoexpurgateentirelythepartsthatparentsconsiderobjectionablefor
their children to read’ (Golden, 1991: 327–28).

Despitetheseverysimilarconcernswithsuitability,theprefacesalso

reflect the translators’ different attitudes towards their young readers.

Mulockemphasisesthatthepurposeofhertranslationistoamuse.She

describesfairytalesas‘thatdelightofallchildren’.Moreover,shepoints
outthatthetalesarenotintendedtoimpartmorals:‘infairytalesinstruc-
tionisnotexpected–wefindthereonlytherudemoralofvirtuerewarded
andvicepunished’.Sheexpressesherviewthat‘thetenderyoungheartis
oftenreachedassoonbytheimaginationasbytheintellect’andsothetales
makeno‘directappealtoeitherreasonorconscience’(Mulock,1863:viii).

Little Snowdrop and The Magic Mirror

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Paull,meanwhile,pointsoutthattheGrimms’taleshavesomemoral

value.Whilesheappealstoyoungreadersbydescribingthetalesas
excitingandfullofadventureandmagic,sheappealsalsototheback-
groundauthorityofparentsbyhintingthatthecharactersalsoprovidesuit-
ablerolemodels.Sheexplainsthatthe‘escapesfromdangerintowhichthe
heroesandheroinesfallarenotalwaysattributedtosupernaturalcauses,
buttotheirowntactandcourage’andthatthecharactersalsodisplayan
admirable ‘spirit of enterprise’ (Paull, 1871/1874: iii).

Thetranslators’commentsregardingthemoralcontentofthetalesthey

translatedareindicativeofthepositionoccupiedbyfairytalesinthecanon
ofEnglishchildren’sliteratureinthe1860sand1870s.Mulock’sviewof
fairytalesisnotunliketheviewsexpressedbythefirstanonymous
translators(nowknowntobeEdgarTaylorandDavidJardine)ofthe
Grimms’talesintoEnglishalmost40yearsearlier,in1823.LikeMulock,
TaylorandJardinebelievedthatfairytalesprovidedidealnourishmentfor
children’simaginations.However,TaylorandJardine’sviewsandtransla-
tioncanbeseenasradicalbecausefairytaleswereexcludedfromthecanon
ofchildren’sliteratureintheearly19thcenturyandregardedalmost
unanimouslyasuselessorevenpotentiallyharmful.Bythe1860s,however,
fairytalesandotherimaginativeliteraturewereacceptedasastaplepartof
children’sliterature,partlyduetothesuccessofthefirsttranslationof
Grimms’ tales (Zipes, 1987: xviii).

AsGreen(1956:70)explains:‘Nolongerwasitthoughtwrongforchildren

toreadfairystories,orbooksofwhichthechieforonlyobjectwassimplyto
amuse’.However,hegoesontosaythatthemoralelementhadnot
disappearedentirelyfromchildren’sliteratureandwas‘unpleasantly
stressed,ordelightfullyconcealedaccordingtothecharacteroftheauthor’.
Asawriter,Mulockbelongedtothesecondcategory.Nevertheless,the
commentsinherprefaceregardingthepotentiallyharmfulcontentofher
sourcetextsalsoillustratethefactthatsomeelementofconcernpersisted
amongparentsthatfairytalescouldharmchildrenthroughtheirlackof
morals or morally confusing content (Townsend, 1990: 69).

Meanwhile,thefirstapproachdescribedbyGreenwastakenbymoral-

isticwriterswhohad,bythe1860s,‘capturedfairytalesfortheirown’
(Bratton,1981:150)inordertocompetewiththegrowingrangeofimagina-
tivechildren’sliteraturethatwasbecomingavailable.Manynowviewed
thegenreasanidealvehicleforteachingreaderstobecomemodelchildren.
This view is hinted at in Paull’s preface (Paull, 1871/1874: iii).

Translation Comparison

A suitable moral tone

Thedifferenceinmoraltonebetweenthetwotranslationsisverymuch

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inkeepingwiththetranslators’differentapproachestowritingforchil-
dren.InMulock’stranslation,the‘rudemoral’ofthesourcetext,conveyed
‘byimplicationratherthandirectadmonition’(cf.Mulock,1860:198),is
simplypreserved.InPaull’shands,meanwhile,thestorybecomesan
explicitly moralistic one.

Themostimmediatelyobviousdifferencebetweenthetwotranslations,

apartfromtheirtitles,istheirlength.At2955words,Mulock’stranslationis
notmuchlongerthanthesourcetext’s(ST)2819words,whichisinkeeping
withheraimofrenderingfairytaleswithoutembellishment.Inasmall
numberofcases,sheclarifiestheactionintheSTbymeansofexplicitation
andspecification.Meanwhile,Paull’stranslation,at3714words,isconsid-
erablylongerthanboththeSTandMulock’stext.Inmostinstances,Paull’s
additionsservetounderlinethemoralmessageoftheSTortodrawoutthe
secondary morals implied.

ThisismostobviousinPaull’shandlingoftheendingofthetale.Inthe

ST,SnowWhite’sevilstepmother,theQueen,whobelievestheheroineis
dead,receivesaninvitationtoherwedding.Havingdonnedherfinery,she
asksthemagicmirrorfortheseventhtimewhois‘thefairestintheland’.On
beingtoldthatSnowWhiteisstillathousandtimesfairer,theQueenis
shockedandfrightenedbutcompelledbyenvytoseeherwithherown
eyes.MulockrendersthefinalthreeSTsentencesasfollows–material
added by Mulock is indicated in italics:

Whenshecame,andfoundthatitwasSnowdropaliveagain,shestood
petrifiedwithterroranddespair.Thentwoironshoes,heatedburning
hot,weredrawnoutofthefirewithapairoftongs,andlaidbeforeherfeet.
Shewasforcedtoputthemon,andtogoanddanceatSnowdrop’swedding
–dancing,dancingonthesered-hotshoestillshefelldowndead.
(Mulock, 1863: 298)

ThisisoneofthefewpassageswhereMulockaddsinformation;hereitis

clearlyinordertomaketherathershortandabruptSTendingmore
comprehensible to young readers.

Paull,incontrast,translatesthefinalthreesentencesasfollows(material

added by Paull is indicated initalics):

Butwhatwasherastonishmentandvexationwhensherecognisedinthe
youngbrideSnow-whiteherself,nowgrownacharmingyoungwoman,and
richlydressedinroyalrobes?Herrageandterrorweresogreatthatshe
stoodstillandcouldnotmoveforsomeminutes.Atlastshewentintothe
ballroom,buttheslipperssheworeweretoherasironbandsfullofcoals
offire,inwhichshewasobligedtodance.Andsointhered,glowing
shoesshecontinuedtodancetillshefelldeadonthefloor,asadexample
of envy and jealousy.(Paull, 1871/1874: 213)

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PaullreplacestheQueen’sdeathbycruelphysicalpunishmentwith

deathbyself-inflictedpainandself-destruction.Inhertranslation,the
Queenisnotforcedtodonapairofred-hotshoesthathavebeenheatedin
preparationforherpunishment.Instead,herownshoesbegintofeellike
red-hotironbands.TheshoesthusbecomeametaphorfortheQueen’sall-
consumingfeelingsofrageandenvy,whichfinallyoverpowerherandshe
literallydiesofenvy.Paulladdressesreadersdirectly,pointingoutthatthe
Queenis‘asadexampleofenvyandjealousy’.Inthisway,sherendersthe
endingofthetalemoreexplicitlymoralisticthanthesourcetext.Thetrans-
gression/punishmentmodelofimplicitmoralinstructionusedinthesource
textisreplacedbyanexplicittransgression/self-destructionmodel,which
impartsmoreclearlythemoralthatvanityandenvywillleadtoone’sown
downfall.Itservesalsotoexoneratethegoodcharactersfromanyimplica-
tioninanactofcrueltyandvengeance.Furthermore,theuseof‘sad’herealso
invitesreaderstopitytheQueen’ssinfulsoulratherthancondemnher.

PaullalsomakesthesecondarymoralsimpliedintheGermantextmore

explicit.Firstly,sheemphasisesthepointthatvanitycanleadaninnocentgirl
astray.Inhertranslation,Snow-whiteisshowntobepronetovanitywhen
sheisbeguiledbythebeautifultrinketsthattheQueenindisguiseoffersher
whenshevisitsthedwarfs’cottage:‘Everythingthatispretty...lacesand
pearls,andear-rings,andbraceletsofeverycolour’,inabasket‘linedwith
glitteringsilk’.Snow-whiteisalsoattractedbythe‘brighttortoiseshell
comb’,whichwillmakeherhair‘wonderfullysmoothandglossy’(Paull,
1871/1874:210).Noneofthesedetailsarepresentinthesourcetext.The
readerisclearlyintendedtounderstandthatallthatglittersisnotgold.

Paullalsoreinforcesthemoralthatchildrenshouldfollowtheadviceof

theirelders.Sheremindsreadersontwooccasionsthattheheroineputs
herselfindangerbyforgettingtoobeythedwarfs.Inthepoisonedcomb
episode,‘sheopenedthedoorandletthewomanin‘forgettingtheadviceof
thedwarfs’.Whenthedwarfswarnheragainafterthis,Paulladds‘butSnow-
whitewasnotcleverenoughtoresisthercleverwickedstepmotherandsheforgotto
obey’(Paull, 1871/1874: 210).

Paulladdssubtledetailsinvariousotherpartsofthetranslationthat

servetodrawoutthemoraldimensionofthetale.Forexample,shealters
thehunter’smotivationfortakingthechildintothewoodswiththeinten-
tionofkillingher.Inthesourcetext,itisimpliedthatthehunterissimply
followingorders,whileinthetargettext,thehunterisledastraybythe
promiseofagenerousmonetaryreward.Later,PaulladdsthattheQueen
hurriesawayfromthedwarfs’cottageafterherhandiworkwiththelace,
‘fancyingsheheardfootsteps’,whichservestoemphasisetheunappealing,
cowardlynatureoftheQueen.Paullalsoaddsthedetailthat,astheQueen
preparestoattendthewedding,shestandsinfrontofthemirror‘toadmire
her own beauty’, again underlining her vanity (Paull, 1871/1874: 209).

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Thechoiceoftitleisafurtherindicatorofthedifferenceinthetranslators’

approaches.Mulock’sLittleSnowdroprecallsthefirstEnglishtranslationof
thetalebyTaylorandJardinein1823,entitledSnow-drop.Paullchoosesa
completelynewtitle,TheMagicMirror,whichisattractiveinitsalliteration
anditspromiseofmagic.Atthesametime,italsopointstothemoralofthe
taleforthemirrorsymbolisesthesinsofvanityandenvy,embodiedinthe
villainess and her obsession with her mirror.

Thediametrically-opposedviewsofthetwotranslatorstowhatMulock

termed‘preaching’inchildren’sliteraturecanbeillustratedwithreference
totheirhandlingofthevalueadjectivesattributedtoSnowWhiteandthe
Queen.Inthesourcetext,negativevalueadjectivesareappliedtothe
Queenonsevenoccasions.Table1showsthestrategiesadoptedbyeach
translator (the number of occurrences of each word is shown in brackets).

Mulockinsertsanadditional‘wicked’inthewarning:‘Bewareofthy

wickedstepmother’.Paull,ontheotherhand,doublesthenumberofnega-
tivevalueadjectivesappliedtotheQueen,leavingtheyoungreaderinno
doubt about the Queen’s wickedness.

Asimilarpictureemergesfromananalysisofthetwotranslators’

handlingofthesixpositivevalueadjectivesattributedtotheheroineinthe
source text (Table 2).

Mulock’stranslationremainsclosetotheGermansourcetext.Paull,on

theotherhand,morethandoublesthenumberoftimespositivevalue
adjectivesareappliedtoherheroine.Shedoublesthenumberofinstances
wheresheisdescribedas‘poor’(‘arm’),thusportrayingherasmore
deservingofthereader’ssympathy.Paullusesanadditional‘innocent’;she
addsthedetailsthattheheroinethanksthehunter‘sweetly’forsparingher
lifeandthatsheis‘acharmingyoungwoman’onherweddingday.Shealso
praisesherhousekeepingskills:‘shewasacleverlittlething.Shemanaged
verywell’(Paull,1871/1874:207).However,shepointsoutthatthegirlis
notcleverinthesamemanipulativesenseasherstepmother:‘notclever

Little Snowdrop and The Magic Mirror

141

Table 1

Translation of negative value adjectives

Sneewittchen

Mulock

Paull

böse(2)

cruel (1), evil-hearted (1)

wicked (2)

boshaft(2)

wicked (2)

gottlos(2)

wicked (2)

grausig(1)

barbarous (1)

horrible (1)

Added:

Added:

wicked (1)

wicked (6)
evil (eye) (1)

Total: 7

Total: 8

Total: 14

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enoughtoresisthercleverwickedstepmother’.InPaull’stranslationthe
readerisleftinnodoubtwithwhomtheirsympathiesshouldlieandthe
heroineisportrayedasanevenmoreinnocentvictimthaninthesourcetext.

TheMagicMirror,fromitstitletoitsalteredending,isanallegorical

warningaboutthesinfulnessofenvy.Thesourcetextcouldbesaidtohave
beenmouldedinseveralwaystoconformtoPaull’spreferredmodelof
instruction,withthenarratorever-presenttopassjudgementonthecharac-
ters,sentimentaliseddescriptionsofgoodcharacters,andsinfulness
leadingtosufferingandselfdestruction.Thisisindirectcontrastto
Mulock’spreservationofwhatshesawasthe‘rude’butsufficientmoral
implied in the source text (see Mulock, 1860).

Suitable content

Aswehaveseen,thetranslatorspointedoutintheirprefacesthatthey

hadtakencaretoomitanypotentiallyunsuitableorharmfulcontentfrom
thetalestheytranslated.Theirdifferentviewsof‘suitability’canalsobe
illustratedbytheirhandlingofcontentsuchascannibalism,thefemale
body and references to death in this tale.

Inthesourcetext,theQueenordersherhuntertokillSnowWhiteandto

bringherthelungsandliverasproof;shesubsequentlyeatsthecooked
lungsandliverofawildboar,believingthemtobethoseofhermurdered
stepdaughter.Mulockretainsallfourreferencestolungsandliver.Paull,on
theotherhand,omitstheQueen’scannibalisticintentionsaltogetherand
avoidsanymentionofinnards.TheQueeninhertranslationsimply
demands‘someproofs’fromthehunter,whotakes‘partoftheinsideofa
youngfawn’,whichtheQueenbelievestobelongtothechildbutdoesnot
eat.Interestingly,MulockwasthefirstEnglishtranslatorofSneewittchento
providealiteraltranslationoftheinnardsinthesourcetext(seeChapelle,
2001: 139).

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Table 2

Translation of positive value adjectives

Sneewittchen

Mulock

Paull

arm(3)

poor (3)

lieb(2)

poor (1), darling (1)

dear (2)

unschuldig(1)

innocent (1)

innocent (1)
Added:
sweet[ly] (1)
poor (3)
innocent (1)
clever (1)
charming (1)

Total: 6

Total: 14

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MulockandPaullalsotakedifferentapproachestothesubtlebutpoten-

tiallyproblematicreferencetofemalenudity.Followingthethird‘tempta-
tionepisode’inwhichtheQueenpersuadestheheroinetoeatthepoisoned
apple, the dwarfs in Mulock’s translation behave as follows:

...[they]searchedwhethershehadanythingpoisonousabouther,
unlacedher,combedherhair,washedherwithwaterandwithwine.
(Mulock, 1863: 296)

Asinthesourcetext,thisimpliesthatthesevenmenprobablyundressed

theyounggirlandwashedhernakedbody.Paullclearlyconsideredsuch
‘content’unsuitableforyoungreadersandspecifiesthatitisonlyherhair
that they wash:

...theytriedtoextractthepoisonfromherlips,theycombedherhair,
and washed it with wine and water. (Paull, 1871/1874: 211)

MulockandPaulldifferonceagainonthesubjectofdeath-relatedrefer-

encesinthistale.AccordingtoMallet(1985:165),Sneewittchencontains
morereferencestomurderanddeaththananyotherGrimmtale.Inaddi-
tiontothelexicalitemsdirectlyrelatedtokillinganddying,thesourcetext
alsohasthehunterslitthethroatofawildboar(‘stachihnab’),statesthatthe
apparently-deadheroinelookedas‘fresh’asalivingpersonandthather
bodydidnotdecay(‘verwestenicht’),andrefersseveraltimestohercoffin.
Again,thetranslators’handlingofthisissuedifferssignificantly(Table3).

ThereislessemphasisondeathandmurderinMulock’stranslationthan

inthesourcetextassheomitstworeferencesandsoftensseveralothers.In

Little Snowdrop and The Magic Mirror

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Table 3

Translation of death-related references

Sneewittchen

Mulock

Paull

töten(2),umbringen(2)

killed (3)

killed/killing (3)

taking her life (1)

get rid of (1)

Zugrunde richten(1)

destroy utterly (1)

get rid of (1)

abstechen(1)

killed (1)

[omitted]

tot(8)

dead (2)

dead (11)

lifeless (3)
motionless (0)

sterben(3)

die/d (2)

die/d (3)

death (1)

Sarg(7)

coffin (7)

coffin (10)

sah noch frisch aus(1)

still looked so fresh (1)

her face was as fresh (1)

verweste nicht(1)

unchanged (0)

decay/ing (2)

Total: 26

Total: 22

Total: 32

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onecase,shesoftens‘töten’(kill)somewhatto‘takingherlife’.Theslitting
oftheboar’sthroat‘stachihnab’isrenderedasthelessgraphic‘killed’.On
threeoccasions,sheusesthelessfinal‘lifeless’,ratherthantheliteral‘dead’
todescribetheappearanceoftheheroineafterherstepmother’sattempts
onherlife.Whenthedwarfsdiscoverherafterthefinal,successfulattempt
withthepoisonedapple,Mulockusesthemuchlessfinal‘motionless’,even
thoughthesourcetextstatesmostdefinitelythatthegirlisdead.Afterthe
dwarfsplaceherbodyinaglasscoffin,thesourcetextrelatesthatshelayfor
alongtimewithoutdecaying(‘verwestenicht’).Mulockeschewsmentionof
decayforthelessdisturbing‘unchanged’.Sheseemstohavevieweddeath
asonetopicfromwhichyoungpeoplerequiredsomedegreeofprotection.

AsillustratedbyTable3,Paulltakesadifferentapproachandactually

increasesthetotalnumberofdeath-relatedreferencesinthetale.Sheomits
onlyonereference–thementionofthroat-slitting,whichisconnectedto
heromissionofthe‘cannibalistic’episodeinthesourcetext.Sheaddsthe
word‘dead’and‘coffin’threetimeseachinherexplicitationofthesource
text,providesaliteraltranslationof‘verwesen’,andevenincludesanaddi-
tionalreferencetodecay:sheexplainsthatthedwarfsplacetheheroineina
glass coffin because it will allow them to ‘watch for any signs of decay’.

Paull’savoidanceofthegoryelementsofcannibalismandinnardsand

ofthesexualundertonesofthedwarfs’handlingoftheheroine’sbodyare
nodoubtrelatedtoherconcernwithsuitabilityandacceptabilityas
expressedinherpreface,aswellastothepublisher’sreputationforoffering
wholesomereading.Mulock’sretentionoftheseelementsisperhaps
surprising,giventhatsheclaimedtohaveexcisedpotentiallyharmful
elements.Herinclusionoftheseelementsmayperhapsreflectherdesireto
provideadefinitivecollectionofgenuinetalesandtoimproveonearlier
translations.OrperhapsthepublisherAlexanderMacmillan’schildren
‘tookto’theseelementswhenhecarriedouthisplanto‘test’thetransla-
tionsonthempriortopublication,asmentionedinanunpublishedletterto
Mulockin1862(seeChapelle,2001:126).Inanycase,itseemsthatMulock
didnotconsiderthattheseelementscould‘reallyharmachild’.Forher,
repeatedreferencestomurderanddeathwerepotentiallymuchmore
harmful for ‘tender young hearts’.

This,again,isindirectcontrasttoPaull,whohadnoproblemwiththe

subjectofdeath,whileconsideringcannibalismandnakednessunsuitable
elements.Thesubjectofdeathwasinfactfairlycommonplaceinchildren’s
booksin19-centuryEnglandandfrequentlyoccurredinassociationwith
thethemesofpunishmentandrewardinmoralistictales(cf.Avery&Bull,
1965:212).Indeed,itoftenmakesanappearanceinPaull’sownstories,
eitherasarewardforanangelicheroorheroine,orasameansoftesting
their faith.

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A suitable style

WhereMulock’sandPaull’sapproachesmoreorlessagreeisinrelation

tothestyleinwhichthetaleiswritten.TheGrimms’processofeditingtheir
tales,whichtheyclaimedhadoriginsinoraltradition,produceda
distinctiveandstandardisedstyle.TheGrimm‘genre’canbedescribedas
‘leadinganuneasydoublelifeasliteratureandfolklore’(Tatar,1987:32).
Bothtranslatorsconsciouslyorunconsciouslymovedthetalefurtherfrom
theoralandclosertotheliterarypole.Theydidsobycancellinglexical
repetition;byrenderingtheepisodicactionlessformulaic;byavoiding
repeateduseofdiminutiveforms(-chenand-leininthesourcetext),
contractedverbformsandparataxis(thejuxtapositionofclauseswithout
explicitsubordinationorcoordination);andbyreducingotherspoken
languagesignals.However,Paullretainedandindeedenhancedoneofthe
‘oral’featuresoftheGrimmgenreinhertranslation:theuseofspoken
languagesignals(And,But,Now,So,Then)ininitialsentenceposition.This
producesasmooth,fast-flowingnarrativeandthisfeatureofPaull’stext
maypossiblybelinkedtoherconsiderableexperienceofwritingforchil-
dren. Mulock’s translation reflects this feature to a much lesser degree.

Bothtranslatorsalsointroducearchaismsintherhymesanddialogue.

WhilethiswasinkeepingwiththetraditionofEnglishtranslationsofthe
Grimms’talessinceTaylorandJardinein1823,Mulockusesarchaic
pronounsandverbforms(thou,thee,thy,thyself,wilt,art,canst,lettest)in
thedialoguetoamuchgreaterdegreethanPaulloranyprevioustranslator.
Thismayberelatedtoherdesiretopresentthetextasa‘realold’taleand
perhapsalsotomakeitsoundmore‘charming’and‘Saxon’andless‘foreign’.

Inanycase,itisperhapsnotsurprisingthatbothtranslatorsshouldhave

giventheirsourcetextaliterarypolishing.Bothwerewritersusedto
producingtextsthatwouldbeconsidered‘well-written’ratherthan
reflectingfolkpoetry.Neithertranslatormentionsthefolkaspectofthe
Grimms’talesinherprefaceandbothstatetheirpreferencefora‘simple’
anddomesticatedstyle.Itwasnotuntil1884thatanEnglishtranslationwas
producedinwhichtheaimwastoreflectthestyleoftheoriginaltales.This
wasMargaretHunt’stranslation(Hunt,1884),aimednotatchildrenbutat
studentsoffolklorewhichhadthenonlyrecentlybeenestablishedasa
disciplineinEngland.MulockandPaullwouldhavebeenmuchmore
concernedwithensuringthattheiryoungreadershadbeforetheman
example of ‘good’ English style.

Conclusion

DinahMulockandMrsPaullsetouttobridgethesameculturaldivide

withtheirtranslationsofSneewittchen,andyetproducedtwoverydifferent
Englishtexts.ThisstudyconfirmsBassnett’s(1998:26)assertionthat‘the

Little Snowdrop and The Magic Mirror

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signsofthetranslator’sinvolvementintheprocessofinterlineartransfer
willalwaysbepresent,andthosesignscanbedecodedbyanyreaderexam-
iningtheprocess’.Ourexaminationofthisprocesshasdemonstratedthat
bothMulockandPaullconstructedtextsthatcouldbeconsidered‘suitable’
forchildrenwithintheirculture,astherewasnooneprevailingviewofchil-
dren,ofthebestwaytoimpartmoralinstruction,norofwhatconstituted
acceptableliteratureforyoungreadersinEnglandatthattime.Coming
fromtheirdifferentviewpointsandbasedontheirdifferentexperiencesof
writingforchildren,thetranslatorsplayedanactiveroleinaligningtheir
translationswithtwoconflictingbutco-existentnormsinthetargetculture.

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Hunt,M.(1884)Grimm’sHouseholdTales:WiththeAuthor’sNotes.Translatedfromthe

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Mitchell, S. (1983)Dinah Mulock Craik. Boston: Twayne Publishers.
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Mulock, D.M. (1852)Alice Learmont. London: Hurst and Blackett.
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Routledge.

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Chapter 12

From Dissidents to Bestsellers: Polish
Literature in English Translation After
the End of the Cold War

PIOTR KUHIWCZAK

Introduction

Inthedensely-writtenparagraphbelow,ItamarEvan-Zohartalksabout

amajorshiftinliterarysensibilityandtheroletranslationmayplayduring
the periods when such shift is becoming conspicuous:

Thedynamicswithinthepolysystemcreatesturningpoints,thatisto
say,historicalmomentswhereestablishedmodelsarenolonger
tenableforayoungergeneration.Atsuchmoments,evenincentral
literatures,translatedliteraturemayassumeacentralposition.Thisis
allthemoretruewhenataturningpointnoitemintheindigenous
stockistakentobeacceptable,asaresultofwhichaliterary
‘vacuum’occurs.Insuchavacuum,itiseasyforforeignmodelsto
infiltrate,andtranslatedliteraturemayconsequentlyassumeacentral
position. (Evan-Zohar, 1990: 48)

InliteraryhistoryEvan-Zohar’s‘moments’areoftenrepresentedaslong

periodsoftransitionthateventuallyleadtotheformationofanewliterary
conventionandanewperiodinthehistoryofliterature.Butsuchtransi-
tionsareneverautonomous–theyarecloselyconnectedwithother,often
turbulent,changesinthesocial,economicandpoliticallifeofwholecoun-
tries and nations.

Criticsdifferastothereasonswhythesechangescomeabout,

butno

criticalschoolhasmanagedtoworkoutaparadigmthatwouldallowusto
predicthowliterarytasteisgoingtodevelopinthefuture(Besserman,
1996).Traditionally,literarycriticismsuggeststhatasubstantialchangein
literarytastefollowsamajorpoliticalupheaval,andEvan-Zohar’sviews
ontheroleoftranslationintheformationofliterarystylesseemtohave
developedalongsimilarlines.So,forinstance,thereisawide-ranging
agreementthatinthe18thcenturyitwastheFrenchRevolutionthatserved
asaturningpointinthehistoryofEuropeanliteratures.Considerable

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importanceisalsoattachedtotheFranco-Prussianwarof1870.Inthe20th
centurythemajorturningpointsforEuropeanliteraturescoincidedwith
theendofthetwoworldwars.Withinnationalliteratures,periodisation
waslinkedtolocaleventssuchastheCivilWarinEngland,therevolutions
of1848inFranceandHungary,theRussianRevolutionof1917,orthe1968
student protests in France.

The ‘Velvet Revolutions’ and the End of an Epoch

Itisverylikelythatthatwithinthisfamiliarparadigmthe1989–1991

changesinEasternEuropeandRussiawillalsobeperceivedasasignificant
turningpointforliterature(Hammond,2005;Rosslyn,1991).Itmaybetoo
earlytodecidewhetherthistransitiontodemocracyinEasternEuropecan
beregardedasamajorcaesurainliterarystudies,orasaturningpointof
onlylocalsignificance.Thereisnodoubt,however,thatifwetakea
systemicapproach,asadvocatedbyEvan-Zoharandhisfollowers(Toury,
1995;Hermans,1999),weshallhavetoagreethatintheformerEasternBloc
countriestheplaceofliteratureinasocialsystem,andtherelationship
betweenoriginalandtranslatedliteratures,havechangeddramatically
since1989(Wachtel,2006).Itisalreadythecasethat,ineverydaydiscourse
inPoland,1989isusedasametaphorforawholevarietyofphenomenathat
have developed since the Communist Party lost power.

Itwouldbedifficultwithinthisshortspacetogiveafullaccountofthe

changesthathavetakenplaceinallthecountriesoftheregion.Butspaceis
notthesoleproblemhere.Another,andperhapsmoreimportant,sourceof
difficultyispreciselythefactthat1989markedacollapseofwhatwas
perceivedasoneregion,orapoliticalunitthatusedtobeconveniently
knownaseither‘theSovietBloc’,the‘WarsawPact’or‘EasternEurope’.
Thiscollapseisreflectedevenintheveryfactthattheoldlabelsusedto
describetheSovietsphereceasedtofitthenewpoliticalreality.Theearly
1990sweremarkedbyadesperatesearchfornewterminologythatcould
reflectamultitudeoftransformations–political,religious,economicand
military.TheEast–WestdividewasbeginningtogivewaytotheNorth–
Southparadigm,andtheforgottennotionof‘theBalkans’madeaswift
comebackaswarsswepttheterritoryofwhatusedtobecalledYugoslavia
(Rosslyn,1996).TheexpansionofNATOandtheEuropeanUnionintro-
ducedfurthercomplications.Suddenly,therewasadilemmawiththe
newlyemergingBalticStates–weretheystill‘Baltic’,apartofcultural
zonecalled‘Scandinavia’,orjustthreecountrieswithdistinctivenames,
languagesandcultures?ThetermseasternandwesternEurope,which
usedtobesoneatandconvenientarenowfuzzyterms,andthefuzzinessis
reflectedintheuncertaintywithwhichwenowusecapitallettersto
describe the parts of the old continent.

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The Usefulness of the Polish Case

Manyofthesemantic,culturalandpoliticaldilemmaswillhavetowait

longerforasatisfyingresolution.Here,IwanttolookonlyatPoland,the
largestcountryoftheregion,andforhistoricalreasonsperhapsthemost
familiartoEnglish-speakingaudiences.SomeissuesinPoland’scultural
transitionshavebeenunique,andarelinkedtothespecificturnsinPolish
history.ButinmanycasestherecentdevelopmentsinPolishpublishing,
andspecificallyinliterarytranslationfromandintoPolish,willparallel
whathappenedinothercountriesoftheregionwhenthemajorpolitical
change took place in the last decade of the 20th century.

Onecanmakeasafegeneralisationtoday,thatpriortothe‘VelvetRevo-

lutions’,politicalchange,politicsandideologyaffectedtheperception,
selectionandtranslationofPolishandotherEastEuropeanliterature
(Kuhiwczak, 1989).

Althoughitdoesnotmeanthat,inordertobetranslated,abookhadtofit

theColdWarparadigm,thereisnodoubtthatpoliticsplayedanimportant
roleintheprocessofselection.However,whilethinkingabouttheimpact
ofpolitics,wemustnotimaginethatitwasamatterofattention-grabbing
headlinesandcommercialcynicism,asisoftenthecasetoday.Literaturein
EasternEuropeusedtobepoliticalnotsomuchbecauseallwritersdeliber-
atelychosetoopposetheCommunistregime,butbecausethepublishing
wasentirelycontrolledbythestateapparatus.TheMarxist–Leninist
dogmaconsideredliteratureasanimportantpartofideology;itwasatool
thatshouldhelptoconvincethepopulationsthatsocialismandcommu-
nismweretheonlyviableideologies(Luker,1992).Itisobvious,then,that
anywritingthatfelloutsidethisrequirementwasalreadypolitically
suspect,althoughwiththeweakeningofthecommunistsystem,therewas
progressivelymoretolerancefor‘non-committedwriting’.Writerswho
weredeliberatelyquestioningtheethicsofthesocialist–realistframework
evenwithoutmakinganyallusiontopolitics,wereconsidered,ifnotas
politicalenemies,atleastas‘unreliableelements’thatneededtobetreated
withsupremecaution.Itisnotsurprisingthattherestrictionsonwhatwas
andwhatwasnotacceptabletothepoliticalestablishmentpushedthe
ethicalquestionstothefore.IncharacterisingZbigniewHerbert’spoetry
longaftertheendoftheColdWar,thePolishcritic,JerzyJarniewiczwrote:

YetwhetherHerbertisreadasapoliticalpoet,history’switness,a
metaphysicaloranexistentialistpoet,heremainsthepoetofmoral
examination,affirming(howeveranachronisticitmayseem)thatart
cannotexistoutsidetherealmofmorality.Perhapshewillturnoutto
havebeenthelastgreatpoetwhoexplicitlyeclaredtheethicaldutiesof
art.Duringthelongcommunistnightpoetswereexpectedtofulfil
theseduties;intoday’sclimate,wheremoraldebatesareconductedin

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publicwithoutcensorship,poetshavebeenassignedadifferent,
humbler role. (Jarniewicz, 2001: 362)

Furtheron,Jarniewicz(2001:359)statesthatitisthisethicalstance,not

onlyinpoetrybutalsoinfilm,thatmadePolishartsoattractivetoBritish
writersandreadersintheyearsoftheColdWar.Theimportedworksfilled
inthemetaphysicalgapthatexistedinthecountrywhereethicsandartdid
nothavetoliveunderthesameroofandwerenotexpectedtosharethe
sameintellectualspace.FurtherevidencethatBritishwriterswereawareof
thisusefulinfluenceofEastEuropeanwritingcomesfromSeamusHeany,
whowroteextensivelyabouttheimpactEastEuropeanpoetshadonthe
native literary scene:

Whattranslationhasdoneoverthelastcoupleofdecadesisnotonlyto
introduceustonewliterarytraditionsbutalsotolinkthenewliterary
experiencetomodernmartyrology,arecordofcourageandsacrifice
whichelicitsourunstintedadmiration.So,subtly,withakindof
hangdogintimationofdesertion,poetsinEnglishhavefeltcompelledto
turntheirgazeEastandhavebeenencouragedtoconcedethatthelocus
ofgreatnessisshiftingawayfromtheirlanguage.(Heaney,1988:38)

The ‘Golden Age’ of Polish Poetry

Indeed,whilelookingthroughthelistsofauthorstranslatedfrom

Polish,wecanclearlyseethatpoetrywasadominantgenre.Thisconclu-
sionisbasednotonlyonstatisticsbuttheprestigeofpublishersandmaga-
zinesthatpublishedPolishliterature.FaberandFaber,CarcanetPress,
BloodaxeBooks,PNReview,ModernPoetryinTranslationarejustfew
householdnamesthattookastronginterestinpoetrycomingfromPoland
and other East European countries.

Anadditionalfactorthatprivilegedpoetryoverothergenreswasthe

awardoftheNobelPrizeforLiteraturetoCzeslawMiloszin1980,and
severalprestigiousEuropeandistinctionsawardedtoZbigniewHerbert
andWislawaSzymborska.InthesamedecadetwootherEastEuropean
poetswereawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiterature:JaroslavSeifertin1984
andJosephBrodskyin1987.Thishelpedtokeeptheinterestintheregion’s
poetry going for a bit longer.

Itwouldbeperhapsunjusttoclaimthatpoliticsandprizesweremore

importantinthepromotionofPolishpoetrythanitsintrinsicquality.Many
PolishcriticsareinclinedtoadmitthatthequalityofPolishliteratureis
reflectedmuchbetterinpoetrythaninthenovel.Butthisisnotonlythe
viewofthePoles.ThetoweringfigureofGermanliterarycriticism,Marcel
Reich-Ranickiarrivedatasimilarconclusionafterhavingreadextensively
Polish literature in the 1950s:

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Infact,nexttotheworksofChopin,poetryisthePoles’finestcontribu-
tiontoEuropeanart.Istillbelievethis.UnfortunatelyEuropewas
nevermuchconcernedaboutPolishpoetry.Thisisasregrettableasitis
understandable,butitisamisfortuneforPolishliterature.Because
Polishnovels,withfewexceptions,donotriseabovemediocrityand
thesameistrueofPolishdrama,unlessitisversedrama.Polishpoetry,
however,stubbornlyresistsattemptstotranslateitintoanother
language.WhilewehaverespectableGermantranslations,reallygood
ones are exceedingly rare. (Reich-Ranicki, 2002: 115)

Reich-RanickibemoansthefactthatGermantranslationsdonotgive

justicetoPolishpoetry.Itwouldbehardtoprovidetextualevidencethat
translationsintoEnglishwerebetterthantheonesintoGerman,nevertheless
itiscertainthatfrom1960sonwardsPolishpoetryattractedtheattentionof
majorBritishwriters–firstTedHughesandthenSeamusHeaney.Inthe
UnitedStatesthepoetryofCzeslawMiloszinEnglishtranslationbecame
so important that it began to have close followers in Britain (Davie, 1986).

The Changes in the Polish Polysystem

ThisgoodpatchforPolishpoetrylastedabitlongerthancommunism,

mainlyduetothefactthatthe1996NobelPrizewentagaintoaPolishpoet,
WislawaSzymborska.Butifwelookatawidercontext,thenwecanclearly
seethatthetimesforPolishliteratureanditstranslationintoother
languageswerealreadychanging.Thechangedidnotcomefromoutside
Poland but from inside the country.

The‘historicalmoment’asdefinedbyEvan-Zohar(1990)arrivedin1989

andnotonlychangedthepositionofliteratureinthePolishpolysystem,
butradicallyalteredthepolysystemitself(Marody,1991,2004).Themost
radicalchange,whichhadtriggeredawholechainreaction,wastheendof
thestatemonopolyonpublishing.Thismeantnotonlytheendofcensor-
shipandmicro-managementofpublishinghouses,butalsotheendofthe
extensivebutpolitically-motivatedsupportsystemthatpublishingand
other cultural institutions had enjoyed in the whole of post-1945 period.

Theendofsubsidiesledinturntotheprivatisationofpublishingand

booksellingandthecreationofthemarket.Nowthepublisherswerefreeto
choosewhattheywantedtopublish,aswellaswhattheywantedtotrans-
latefromotherlanguages.Butthislong-awaitedfreedomalsohadanother
face–competition,staffredundancies,bankruptciesandmergers.Likethe
restofthestate-controlledeconomy,publishingwassubjecttotherigorous
rulesofwhatisnowknownasthe‘Polishshocktherapy’(Sachs,1993).The
changesweresounexpected,paradoxicalandfarreachingthattheywere
immortalisedinliteraryworks.Atthepeakofpainfuleconomicreforms,

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ZbigniewMachejwroteapoemabouttheimpactthe‘shocktherapy’had
on the hierarchy of Poland’s cultural values:

Dignity and desire shall find refuge under the same
roof, and the wolf shall lie down with the black sheep
and the ugly duckling. Dreams of a wholesale business
selling exotic fruits shall eclipse the longing
for pure art. The Messiah of the Lithuanian prophets will find no
refuge, not even in a waxworks museum. (Machez, 1991: 150)

Althoughthisisapoetictext,itencapsulatesverywellwhathappened

notonlywiththePolisheconomy,butalsowiththesystemofvalues.
Marketrules,irrelevantundercommunism,arenowofprimaryimpor-
tance,andartaswellasartistshavetoadapttotheneweconomicrealities.
Sellorperish,ratherthanpublish,orperishbecamethedominantmottoof
Polish literary scene after 1989.

The Market and Translation into Polish

Althoughthetransitionwaspainful,thereisnodoubtthatafter1989

translationintoPolishbegantoflourish(Korzeniowska&Kuhiwczak,
1994)TheUNESCOstatistics(IndexTranslationum),

indicatethat,afterthe

initialcollapseofthePolishpublishingmarketin1990,thenextfiveyears
weremarkedbyasteadygrowthoftranslationsfromEnglishintoPolish.
Afterthatyearthenumbersfluctuateslightly,whichmeansthatanatural
saturationofthepublishingmarketmusthavebeenreached.Thestatistics
alsotellusthatEnglishbecameadominantlanguagefromwhichPolish
publisherswerebuyingtranslationrights.Incontrast,thetranslationsfrom
Russian,whichcollapsedfrom90in1989to19in1990,neverreachedthe
pre-1989level.Thisisalsothecaseforalltheformer‘EasternBloc’
languages,includingGermanbecausetheofficialpolicybefore1989wasto
subsidisethepublishingofbooksfromthe‘fraternalcountries’.

Transla-

tionsfromFrench,althoughrecoveredfromthelowpointof42in1989,
fluctuatedwidelyinthesameperiodandreached116in1995.Thegeneral
trendsremainedunchangedinthesecondhalfofthedecadeandinthe
earlyyearsofthe21stcentury.Inthemostrecentsetofstatisticsprovided
byInsyututKsiazki(PolishBookInstitute)for2004thegapbetweentransla-
tionsfromEnglish(1602titles)andthesecondlargesttranslatedliterature,
German (116 titles) remains very substantial.

Butnumbersalonedonotprovideafullpicture.Inthepre-1989Poland,

publisherswereobligedtosupplydataaboutthenumberofcopiesprinted,
andstatisticsaboutsoldnumberofcopieswaseasilyobtainable.Thisisno
longerthecase–yetanothersymptomthatPolishpublishinghascaughtup
withtherestofthedevelopedworld.Themostrecentavailableinde-

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pendentresearch(Polityka,2006)revealsthatbetweenAugust2005and
August2006theeightlargestpublisherspublished1267novels.Only121of
thesewerebyPolishauthors,andonlyonepublishingcompanyhada
substantial proportion of Polish authors (40%).

Whilediscussingthesystemicchanges,Evan-Zohar(1990:48)statesthat

whentheliterarysystemevolvesthe‘establishedmodelsarenolonger
tenableforayoungergeneration’.Whenappliedtotheparticularsituation
inPoland,Evan-Zohar’sstatementimpliesthatthewidersocialchanges
mayhaveledtothechangeofpublictaste,andthenperhapstothechange
ofliterarystyle.Thequestionaboutpublictasteisnothardtoanswer.The
liberationofthemarketmeantaninstantinfluxofpopularliterature,
particularlyfromtheUSAandtheUK.Theevidenceforthisisnotonlyin
statisticsandtitles,butalsoinPolishlanguage,whereagenericnewterm
forlow-gradepopularliteratureis‘ludlum’coinedfromthenameofRobert
Ludlum–amasterofpopularfiction.Thissuddeninfluxofpopularlitera-
turecausedamajorchangeofproportionsbetweenthegenres,favouring
narrative prose at the expense of poetry and drama.

ThePolishlanguageitselfunderwentamajorchange(Pisarek,1999).

Fromtheschizophrenicsituationbefore1989,whenagapbetweenthe
languageusedintheprivateandthepublicsphereswasenormous
(Glowinski,1990),Polishwasplungedstraightintothesituationwhenthe
tworegistersmergedwithavengeance.Topreventthesideeffectsofsuch
anexplosionof‘privatelanguages’and‘freeforall’,in1999thePolish
parliamentpassedalawprotectingtheappropriateuseofPolishinthe
publicsphere.

Whatthelawdidnottacklewastheoverwhelminginflu-

enceofEnglishonthePolishlanguageinprivateandpublicspheresbothin
awrittenandaspokenform(Kwiecinski,1998).Thisinfluenceisconspic-
uousnotonlyintranslatedliteraturefromEnglish,butalsoinliterarytexts
written in Polish.

Itwouldbedifficulttoprovewhether,asEvan-Zoharclaims,allthese

changeshaveledtothe‘vacuum’andthedominant,orevencentral
positionoftranslatedliteraturewithinthePolishliterarysystem.Perhaps
thisistrueofpopularliterature,becausebefore1989popularliteraturein
theWesternunderstandingofthetermwasactivelydiscouragedbythe
authoritiesandconstitutedamarginalphenomenonintheofficialsphere
(Kloskowska,2005).Thesuddeninfluxofinexpensivepaperbacksavail-
ableinlargenumbersinPolishhypermarketsdidcertainlymeanthatthey
begantooccupyacentralpositionwithinthisgenre.Ingeneral,however,
theurgetorejecttheoldmodelsasanintentionalactionwasamatterofthe
formationofsmallnewliterarygroupingssuchasaliterarygroupBRuLion.
Inthemid-1990stherewasalsoabriefperiodofwide-rangingmedia
discussionaboutthedemiseofwhatwascalled‘traditionalPolishcultural
paradigms’andanemergenceofnewattitudesandstylesincreative

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writing(Janion,1996),includingwomen’swritingandgayliterature.
However,allthesesymptomsdonotconstitutesufficientevidenceto
suggestthatthetransformationsinthePolishpolysystemcausedaradical
andpermanentchangeinliterarytaste.Foreignmodelshave‘infiltrated’
someaspectsofthePolishliterarysystem,butitistooearlytostatethatthey
changed the prevailing taste.

Whathascertainlychangedisthemechanismbywhichbooksare

marketedandsold.Intheabsenceofmodernmarketingtoolsandthe
absenceoftheveryword‘marketing’inthePolishvocabulary,booksinpre-
1989Polandwereneitherpromotednoradvertised.Bestsellerswere
createdbywordofmouth,orbythesimplefactthatbooksthatwerein
demandwerenotavailableinasufficientnumbers.Aqueueinfrontofa
bookshopusedtobeascommonasaqueueinfrontofanyothershop.Now,
thebestsellersaremanufacturedinthesamewaytheyaremanufacturedin
othercountriesandthePolishbestsellerlistsarenotdifferentfromsimilar
listselsewhere.AlthoughPolandisperceivedasadeeplyCatholiccountry,
TheDaVinciCodedominatesthebestsellerlistsinPolandinthesameway
that it does anywhere else.

The Impact of Change on the Translation from Polish

Sofarpolysystemtheoryhasnotbeenpreoccupiedwiththequestionof

howfarthemajorchangeswithinonesocialandliterarypolysysteminflu-
enceotherliterarypolysystems.Inthisparticularcase,thequestionis
whetherthemajorchangesinPolandhadanyimpactonthetranslationof
Polishliteratureintootherlanguages.Thequestionhastwoaspects.The
firstoneconcernstextualmatters,thatiswhetherthenewlinguisticand
stylisticfeaturesofpost-1989Polishliteratureareachallengefortransla-
tors,andwhetherthenewPolishidiomisreflectedintheEnglishversions
oftranslatedbooks.Thesecondaspectofthisquestionisabouttheselection
ofwhatgetstranslatedandwhy.Toanswerthefirstquestiononewould
havetoundertakeasystematiccorpusresearchwithasampleofrepresen-
tativetexts.However,sincetheperiodunderconsiderationisshortandthe
selectionofliterarytextsfrom‘small’literaturesisalwaysidiosyncratic,the
outcomeofthiskindofresearchwouldnotbeneitherparticularlyuseful
norincisive.PerhapsatthisstageintheevolutionofthePolishliterary
polysystem,itismoreimportanttoaskhowtheresponsetothePolish
changesisreflectedinthechangeofbookselectionfortranslationinrela-
tion to the period before 1989.

ThefirstresponsetothechangesinPolandwasanexpectationonthe

partofBritishandalsoAmerican

publishersthatthechangewilleither

revealsomethingthatwashiddenfromthepublicviewbycensorship,or
generateawaveofnewandexcitingwriting.In1993thenow-defunct

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ForestBookspublishedacollectionofPolishpoetrywithanemphatictitle
YoungPoetsofaNewPoland.Intheintroductiontothevolume,theeditor
Donald Pirie claimed:

Thoughthisselectionofpoemsmayreflectaperiodoftransitionrather
thananewpoeticaestheticthatistheexpressionofaverydifferent
Polishsociety,itissurelyalsotruethatauthentic,convincingpoetryis
alwayslocatedinthetransitionalandunstable,ratherthanconfinedby
the predictable. (Machey: 1993: XIII)

Tenyearslater,ananthology,AlteredStates(Menghametal.,2003)was

verysimilarintone.Infact,thesubtitleofthevolume,NewPolishPoetry,
impliedthatPolandhadagenerationofnewpoetstobediscovered.Inboth
volumesseparatedbyexactlyadecade,newwasabuzzword,verymuchin
thespiritofhowPolandandthewholeofEasternEuropewasrepresented
inthemedia.However,whenwetrytoassesstheimpactofbothvolumes,
weshallseethatitwasnotsubstantial.Neitherofthetwopublications
generatedeitherindividualvolumesforthepoetsincluded,orafollow-up
interestinthewholegenerationofthesepoets.Infact,themainstream
publishers,iftheypublishedPolishpoetryatall,remainedcommittedto
thepoetsoftheoldergeneration:CzeslawMilosz,WislawaSzymborska,
ZbigniewHerbert,TadeuszRozewicz,EwaLipska,AdamZagajewskiand
PiotrSommer.Evenifwetakeintoconsiderationpublicationsinsmall
literarymagazines,wecanclearlyseethatPolishpoetryceasedtobein
demandandthatthenoveltyofPolishliteraturehadtobediscoveredin
other genres.

Incontrasttopoetry,thePolishprose,notverywellrepresentedbefore

1989(perhapswiththeexceptionofStanislawLem’ssciencefictionand
RyszardKapuscinski’sliteraryreportage)begantobenoticedabroad,and
inadifferentwayfrombefore.Intheabsenceofpoliticalcriteriaforthe
selectionoftexts,theUKpublishersbegantoapplythesamecriteriato
Polishliteratureastoliteraturefromothercountries.Thereisnowaclear
correlationbetweenthetranslatedtextsandtheirreputationinPoland.
Thisreputationisbasedonthreesetsofcriteria:anawardofaprestigious
literaryprize(suchasNikeReaders’Prize),thelong-termreputationofthe
writerinPoland,orthemediapublicityaroundabook,usuallywrittenbya
previously unknown author.

Inthefirstcategory,thatisbooksawardedprizesinPoland,wehave

OlgaTokarczuk’sHouseofDay,HouseofNight,JoanneOlczk-Roniker’sIn
theGardenofMemory,andAntoniLibera’sMadame.PawelHuelle’sshort
storieswerepublishedin1991,sohisnovelMercedes-Benzhadaneasier
entryintothemarket,althoughthesponsorshipbyMercedes-Benzforthis
novelcreatedalotofmediaandmarketingpublicityfortheauthorin
Poland.TomekTryzna’sGirlNobody,andDorotaMaslowska’sWhiteand

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RedaregoodexamplesofanewPolishphenomenonofauthorsandbooks
whose reputation is created by publicity and media manipulation.

What Can the ‘New’ Polish Literature Offer?

Despitethefactthatthenumberofpublicationsissmall,itispossibleto

identifythekindofwritingthatcancountonthepublishers’,andperhaps
readers’,interest.ThereisnodoubtthatPolishliteratureconnectedwith
theHolocaustthatwastranslated,albeitinsmalldoses,before1989has
remainedpopular.AswellasJoannaOlczak-Ronikier’smemoir(2004),in
recentyearswehaveseenthepublicationofRomaLigocka’smemoir
(2003),HannaKrall’sshortstories(2006)andBohdanWojdowski’snovel
(1997).Krallisofparticularinteresthere,becauseherworkshavebeen
translatedintoallmajorEuropeanlanguages,buthavehadlimitedluck
withtranslationintoEnglish.Itmaybethecasethatthepublicationanda
subsequentfilmingofWladyslawSzpilman’smemoirThePianist(1999)
helpedotherauthorsinthesamewaythatStevenSpielberg’sfilm
Schindler’sListhelpedtorevivetheinterestintheHolocaustliteratureinthe
United States.

AnentirelynewinterestisthePolishwritingthatistryingtoexplorethe

complicatedethnicandpoliticaldilemmasofPoland’spast.Pepperedwith
agooddoseofthe‘oldworld’nostalgia,thesebookstouchonsubjectsthat
before1989weretabooinPoland.Huelle,Libera,ChwinandTokarczukfit
neatlyintothisparadigm.Fewreviewsthathavebeenwrittenonthese
writersdrawattentiontotheaffinity,orcontrastwithGunterGrass,or
evokeageneralimpressionabouttheCentralEuropeanqualityofprose.
Such was the view of Marek Kohn onMercedes-Benz:

Huelle’switandhissubtlegiftformeasuringabsurditystandcompar-
isonwithHrabaloranyoftheothergreatcentralEuropeanironists.
Evenso,itfelltocommerceratherthanarttoaddthefinishingtouch.
Bythetimethebookappeared,capitalismandculturehaddeveloped
inPolandtoapointwhereMercedes-Benzfeltabletotakethehintfrom
theCitroenanecdoteandsponsorthepublication.Timehadturned
another of its circles. (Kohn, 2005)

SimilarlyMichelHoffmaninTheGuardianof5March2005calledattention
to Grass and then Sebald:

StefanChwinisanewnametome,andDeathinDanzigishisfirstbook
inEnglish.ItremindsmealittleofRushdieandGrass(himselfanative
ofDanzig,afterall),andperhapsalittlemoreofSebald,inthewayit
deploys a damaged individual at a crux of history. (Hoffman, 2005)

ThereisnodoubtthatthiskindofwritingfindskeenreadersintheUK,

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perhapsmorethaninmainlandEurope,whereMaxSebaldisisnowhere
nearaspopularashere.Itissufficientlyfamiliarstylisticallytobeaccepted,
anditprovidesanacceptabledoseofothernessthatfitsintotheexisting
notion of what is seen as ‘Eastern’ or ‘Central’ European.

WhiletakingthisnecessarilycursorylookatwhatkindofPolishwriting

istranslatedintoEnglish,onecanclearlyseethatononehandthereisan
expectationthatthecreativeenergyreleasedafter1989shouldproduce
somethingnewandunexpected.Ontheotherhand,thereisalongingfor
whatisessentiallydefinedas‘EastEuropean’literature–aspecific,
personalaccountoftheregion’stroubledhistory.Thisdualandrather
incompatiblesetofexpectationsdoesnotconcernPolandalone.Inthe
recentreviewofCzechshortstories,theauthorMayaJaggibeganbylaying
downthedilemmathatallliteraturesfromtheregionarefacingwhenthey
hit the desk of foreign publishers:

TheColdWarguaranteedareadershipintheWestfordissidentCzech
writersaftertheSovietinvasionof1968,andamongCzechswho
queuedfortheirbookswhentheVelvetRevolutionof1989putanend
tocensorship.Yet,justasthebookshopqueueshavelongsincedisap-
peared,writershavefoundthattheirinternationalappealhasebbed
away.ThemostfetedCzechnoveliststoday,includingMichalViewegh
andJachymTopol,arescarcelyknownintheEnglish-speakingworld.
GarglingTar,Topol’slatestnovel,isACzechTinDrumsetduringthe
crushingofthePraguespringofhisboyhood.Butwhowillpublishitin
Britain?AsIheardonelocalcriticaskdespondentlyatMay’sPrague
BookFair,‘Whatisthesellingpointofpost-communistliterature?’(The
Guardian, 8 July, 2006)

Itseemsthatonlytimewillhelptobringsuchhistoricalcomparisonsto

anend.AsA.Alvarez(1966)andthenSeamusHeaney(1988)stressed,the
qualityofEastEuropeanliteraturecameoutofinnumerablehistoricalpres-
sures.Thepost-1989writingfromEasternEuropeisboundtobedifferent,
perhapsbasedmuchmoreonindividualthancollectiveexperience.Inthis
respect,thefictiontranslatedfromPolishinthelastfewyearsgivesatrue
pictureofwhatEastEuropeansexperience,writeandread,althoughthose
whorememberpre-1989Europemaybedisappointedthatthisnew,liber-
atedEasternEuropedoesnotprovideextraordinaryliterarytalentasit
used to in the past.

Notes

1.Inthelate20thcentury,comparativecriticismusesThomasKuhn’stheory

presented in hisThe Structure of Scientific Revolutionpublished in 1962.

2.On WWW at http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php-URL_ID=7810&

URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html. Accessed 17.03.97.

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3.Pre-1989figuresforGermanwereboostedbyasubstantialnumberoftransla-

tions from the German Democratic Republic.

4.On WWW at http://www.instytutksiazki.pl/. Accessed 17.03.97.
5.Theimmediateimpactofthischangeontranslationwasconspicuous.Theinflux

ofpopularliteraturemeantthatpublisherswereengagingmoretranslators,
often poorly qualified for the job.

6.OnWWWathttp://ks.sejm.gov.pl/proc3/ustawy/10_u.htm.Accessed17.03.97.
7.AsimilarsituationexistsinItalian.SeeRay,Leslie(2004)Italianliesdying...and

the assassin is English.The Linguist43, 34–37.

8.Becauseofmassivetake-oversandchangestobookdistributionovertheyears,

itisdifficultnowtodetermineseparateidentitiesofUKandUSpublishersand
publishing markets.

9.AndrzejWajda’sfilmbasedonthenoveldidnotturnouttobeeitheranartistic

or a commercial success.

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Contents
Acknowledgements
Contributors: A Short Profile
Introduction
Chapter 1 Voices in Translation
Chapter 2 From Rouyn to Lerwick: The Vernacular Journey of Jeanne-Mance Delisle’s ‘The Reel of the Hanged Man’
Chapter 3 Speaking the World: Drama in Scots Translation
Chapter 4 Staging Italian Theatre: A Resistant Approach
Chapter 5 The Style of Translation: Dialogue with the Author
Chapter 6 Chekhov in the Theatre: The Role of the Translator in New Versions
Chapter 7 The Cultural Engagements of Stage Translation: Federico García Lorca in Performance
Chapter 8 To Be or Not To Be (Untranslatable): Strindberg in Swedish and English
Chapter 9 Mind the Gap: Translating the ‘Untranslatable’
Chapter 10 Alice in Denmark
Chapter 11 Little Snowdrop and The Magic Mirror: Two Approaches to Creating a ‘Suitable’ Translation in 19th-Century England
Chapter 12 From Dissidents to Bestsellers: Polish Literature in English Translation After the End of the Cold War

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